 |
| Timeline |
 |
 |
 |
 |
A.) WORLD WAR I : THE PRELUDE
With Bismarck's demise in 1890, Germany's domination of Europe's diplomacy fell apart. His successors were mediocre. Russia and France formed an alliance, while Germany stuck to it's alliance with Austria-Hungary. Germany's aggressive build-up of a fleet was sensed by Britain as directed against it. 1904 Britain and France settled their differences by negotiation and established the ENTENTE CORDIALE. In 1907, Biritain and Russia settled their differences. Germany and Austria-Hungary found themselves more and more isolated. The main alliances facing each other in the war were formed.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, a multinational Empire, had refused to open it's parliament to larger and larger segments of the population and was widely regarded as oppressive. There were numerous groups advocating the independence of their respective ethnicity. France looked for an opportunity to take revenge for 1870/71, and to regain Alsace-Lorraine. Russia rode on the wave of PANSLAVISM, on the idea to unite all Slavic people under the rule of the Czars. Young nation-states such as Italy, Serbia, Greece, Rumania etc. pursued an IRREDENTA policy, i.e. aimed to acquire territories with Italian respective Serb. etc. population. Such an irredenta policy was highly problematic, as ethnies in large parts of Europe were mixed up like a kaleidoscope. This problem was worst on the Balkans. By 1882, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece controlled that part of Europe where their people formed a clear majority of population. However, a large territory stretching from the Adriatic Sea to Istanbul was still Ottoman. After Italy easily defeated the Ottoman Empire in 1911, the Balkan nations in 1912 founded an alliance, defeated the Ottoman Empire and carved up most of it's European possessions (1ST BALKAN WAR). In 1913, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia and Rumania teamed up against Bulgaria (2ND BALKAN WAR). Nationalism had turned aggressive. Serbia gained Kosovo, an area to 90 % inhabited by Muslim Albanians. Before the wars, only 4 % of Salonica's population were Greek; in 1913 the city became Greek. In 1908, Austria-Hungary's ANNEXATION OF BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA in 1908 alienated Serbia, as Bosnia had a considerable Serb population element. On June 28th 1914, Serbian secret agent Gavrilo Princip shot Austrian Archduke Franz-Ferdinand in Sarajevo.
B.) THE CHAIN OF EVENTS LEADING TO WORLD WAR I
The Austro-Hungarian government, having evidence for Serbia's involvement in the assassination, issued an ULTIMATUM AT SERBIA; Serbia partially complied. With the approval of German Emperor WILHELM II., Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28th 1914. Russia ordered a partial mobilization of its forces on July 29th, general mobilzation on July 30th. On August 1st Germany mobilized and declared war on Russia. A German request according to France's disposition was given an indefinite answer. On August 2nd, the SCHLIEFFEN PLAN was put into action, German forces invaded Belgium, a BREACH OF BELGIUM'S NEUTRALITY. On August 3rd, Germany declared war on France. On August 4th Britain issued an ultimatum against Germany, which was tantamount to a declaration of war. In most countries, the news of the declaration of war was welcomed, volunteers signing up in large numbers, marching to the front singing.
 |
 |
|
Europe in February 1915 click on map to enlarge |
Europe in August 1916 click on map to enlarge |
C.) THE WAR : THE EARLY YEARS
Germany had to fight a war on two fronts. It's strategy was to quickly defeat France and then to turn on Russia. General Schlieffen had developed the strategy to circumvent France's strong border fortifications by marching through Belgium, a strategy now followed. The German army advanced fast and marched on Paris. However, simultaneously Russian forces invades GALICIA (Austria-Hungary) and East Prussia. Germany had to deploy forces critically needed in the west to the Eastern front, where the advance of Russia's troops was halted in the BATTLE OF TANNENBERG. Meanwhile in the west, the strategy developed by French general FOCH worked. France had waited out the invasion, until the supply lines were long and the invading forces were stretched. Then it sent in it's reserves, halted the advance, and regained territory. However, the war soon turned into a stalemate, both sides digging themselves in (TRENCH WARFARE).
Both sides realizing that this war would take years, they shifted their strategy. Germany's coasts were blocked by the British navy. The purpose of the BRITISH BLOCKADE was to cut the CENTRAL POWERS off critical overseas supplies. Germany's supplies of salpeter, gun-cotton, rubber were low, lasting only for a couple of months. In Germany, WALTHER RATHENAU managed the transition of the peacetime economy into a WAR ECONOMY, critical raw material supplies being centrally managed, allocated according to priority. Production was oriented on war essentials, coupons issued for scarce consumer goods (wartime socialism). Research quickly provided ERSATZSTOFFE : synthetically produced gunpowder and rubber. However, there was both a severe shortage of both fertilizer and manpower on the farms. Germany's agricultural production dropped to 30 % of it's peacetime production starved. The other belligerents also switched to a planned war economy, Austria- Hungary and Russia experiencing similar critical shortages.
The OTTOMAN EMPIRE entered the war on the side of the central powers on Nov. 2nd 1914, ITALY on the side of the ENTENTE on May 22nd 1915, BULGARIA on the side of the central powers on Oct. 14th 1915. Italy's entry resulted in opening the Isonzo front, a side show to the war. Bulgaria's entry caused the collapse of the Serbian front. The Entente, negotiated landing rights at Salonica with the government of GREECE. The British nay landed an invasion force at GALLIPOLI peninsula. The attempt to push for Constantinople and take control of the Bosphorus failed, the forces were bogged down on the peninsula and retreated in Jan. 1916.
Outside of Europe, most of Germany's 10 colonies had fallen in the early days of the war. KIAUTSCHOU had held out until November 1914, when it surrendered to the Japanese. However, in German East Africa, Colonel von LETTOW-VORBECK held out, thus binding British Commonwealth forces which could not be deployed in Europe. Germany's ships which were somewhere on the world's oceans were hunted down by the British Navy, or forced to request internment in a neutral harbour. However, Germany had one weapon to respond on the British Blockade " It's submarines. U-boats sunk the LUSITANIA in 1915, a civilian liner carrying 1195 passengers, among them 128 US citizens. The event turned public opinion in the States against Germany.
D.) THE MIDDLE YEARS, 1916-1917
In an attempt to defeat the French army by inflicting heavy casualties, the German army began the BATTLE OF VERDUN in Feb. 1916. However, expectations were not met and in Dec. the battle was broken off, with either side having lost 337.000 men. The same year, Germany introduced GAS WARFARE, and the allies soon responded. RUMANIA entered the war on the side of the Entente in Aug. 1916, most of it was conquered in September. The Russians occupied ARMENIA, and a British force invaded southern Iraq, when it was enveloped in Kut-al-Amarna and forced to surrender. Ottoman forces also pushed the Russians out of Armenia. By late 1916, the efforts on both sides to turn the situation in their favour, to force a decision, had failed. The war essentially remained a stalemate, inflicting heavy casualties on both sides and placing a heavy burden on both sides' economies.
In March 1917, the population in Russia was disillusioned. The workers of St. Petersburg went on strike. Czar Nicholas ordered force to be used to end the strikes, and the Duma to be dissolved. The Duma refused to dissolve. It formed a provisional government, electing A. KERENSKY premier. The RUSSIAN REVOLUTION had begun. Kerensky favoured another Russian offensive. Meanwhile, LENIN, from his exile in Switzerland, returned to St. Petersburg, meanwhile called Petrograd, with the secret consent of and a credit over 40 million Goldmarks from Germany's government. He spent the money distributing propaganda for his BOLSHEVIK party. With the Russian offensive failing, the popularity of the Kerensky government dropped, and in November the Bolsheviks took control of Leningrad. On March 3rd 1918, Russia signed the PEACE OF BREST LITOWSK, on Germany's terms, granting the independence of Finland, the Baltic States, Russian Poland and the Ukraine.
In Hejaz, Emir Faisal had revolted against Ottoman rule. The (British) Arab Bureau sent T.E. Lawrence to Emir Faisal, LAWRENCE OF ARABIA, exceeding his orders, took Aqaba with a Bedouin force (July 1917). Supplied by the British, he blasted the Hejaz Railway, endangering the Ottoman's supply line. British forces invaded Palestine.
On the seas, the German Navy declared the waters surrounding Britain as unsafe, declared U-BOAT-WARFARE on February 1st 1917. The United States entered the war on April 6th 1917, on the side of the Entente. Influential circles in Germany discussed the future of Europe after a German victory, which foresaw territorial gains (Lorraine, parts of Belgium, Courland, gains in Africa) and the establishment of v assall states around Germany.
E.) THE YEAR OF DECISION : 1918
On January 8th 1918, US president WOODROW WILSON published the USA's goals in the war. PRESIDENT WILSON'S 14 POINTS labelled the war as fought to correct injustice inflicted by the central powers and for the self-determination of suppressed nations.
With the collapse of Russia, large German forces were freed. They were quickly moved to the west front, where they were used in a last effort to force a victory. The spring offensive was halted, largely due to US forces. Now it became obvious to Germany's OHL that the war could not be won. The morale of it's allies had been broken earlier. Bulgaria had asked for an armistice on September 29th, the Ottoman Empire on Oct. 30th, Austria-Hungary on November 3rd. Germany asked for an armistice on November 9th.
