ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : Absolutism</title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2005-2007 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb/tlabs.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Biographies </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on April 15th 2005, last revised on June 20th 2007 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : Absolutism </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/nhb/hdabs.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Anglo-Dutch Wars </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#adwars">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "bourbondyn"><B>Bourbon Dynasty</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Dynasty ruling <A HREF = "../../region/france/xfrance.html">France</A> 1598-1789; other lines ruled <A HREF = "../../region/spain/xspain.html">Spain</A> 1705-1808, <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xnaples.html">Naples</A> 1735-1860, <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xparma.html">Parma</A> 1748-1860. Named after the Duchy of Bourbon in eastern central France. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Bourbon Family Compact</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Treaty (1733) among the countries ruled by the Bourbon Dynasty (<A HREF = "../../region/france/xfrance.html">France</A>, <A HREF = "../../region/spain/xspain.html">Spain</A>, later <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xnaples.html">Naples</A>, <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xparma.html">Parma</A>) laying the foundation of an Alliance, defining common policy and regulating succession in case a male line ended. The <A HREF = "hdabs.html#wittelsbachdyn">Wittelsbach</A> Family (<A HREF = "../../region/germany/xbavaria.html">Bavaria</A>, Palatinate) signed a similar compact in 1724. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "cabinetsystem"><B>Cabinet System</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1740, British PM Robert Walpole convinced King George II. to agree to the principle of the King appointing the parliament majority leader Prime Minister. This lays the foundation to <A HREF = "../../region/britain/xuk.html">Britain</A> being a constitutional monarchy (with an unwritten constitution). The PM presides over and appoints the Cabinet. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "commonwealth"><B>Commonwealth</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Following the execution of King Charles I. - his successor Charles II. resided in the Netherlands respectively <A HREF = "../../region/france/xfrance.html">France</A> - <A HREF = "../../region/britain/xuk.html">England</A> was administrated by Parliament, her constitution referred to as that of a Commonwealth. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector (virtually dictator); in 1660 Parliament recalled King Charles II., terminating the Commonwealth. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "courtisane"><B>Courtisane</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> French for court mistress. The French court set trends for European court culture; it became general practice for ruling nobles to have mistresses (Augustus the Strong is reputed to have fathered 365 children). For noble ladies with beauty, etiquette and sensitivity, this was a career opportunity. Some ended up as influential political figures (see Official Mistress). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Diplomatic Revolution</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> France, since the late 15th century, had pursued an Anti-Habsburg foreign policy. In 1755, credited to the influence of Madame Pompadour, France entered into an alliance with Austria that would last until the end of the Bourbon Dynasty, tested in the Seven Years War. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Dutch War of Louis XIV. </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#dwarlxiv">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Elective Monarchy</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The constitution of the <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xhre.html">Holy Roman Empire</A> and of the <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xpoland.html">Kingdom of Poland- Lithuania</A>. In both cases, it became general practice for candidate to bribe the voters. The authority of the ruler was restricted, the estates be convinced to pay extraordinary taxes only in case of a military threat. Contemporary states ruled absolute developed faster, established <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#standingarmies">Standing Armies</A>; mercantilist policies developed their revenues; elective monarchies stagnated then to disappear (Polish Partitions 1772-1795; Reichsdeputationshauptschluss 1806). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "eabs"><B>Enlightened Absolutism</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The Vision of Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire. He criticized outdated institutions such as privileges, church control of censorship and education, guilds, outdated structures such as state church, serfdom and nobility for lack of progress and hoped enlightened monarchs, because they had the power to make and break law. King Frederick II. in/of <A HREF = "../../region/germany/prusindex.html">Prussia</A>, Emperor Joseph II. of <A HREF = "../../region/germany/ahindex.html">Austria</A>, Empress Catherine II. of <A HREF = "../../region/russia/xrussia.html">Russia</A> tried to rule in an enlightened spirit, implementing policies such as the introduction of religious toleration, the abolition of torture, education reform, striving toward the abolition of serfdom. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Enlightenment </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdenl.html">Enlightenment</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "eraofliberty"><B>Era of Liberty</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Term referring to two periods in Dutch History (<A HREF = "../../region/lowcountries/eralibi.html">1650-1672</A>, <A HREF = "../../region/lowcountries/eralibii.html">1702-1747</A>) and one period in Swedish history (<A HREF = "../../region/scandinavia/xsweden.html">1718-1772</A>). In both cases, a lengthy period <BR> of warfare had caused heavy taxation of the country; and when the opportunity presented itself, Holland decided to do without a stadholder, <A HREF = "../../region/scandinavia/xsweden.html">Sweden</A> with a king without influence; in both countries, Parliament took over. The Eras of Liberty were terminated when the respective country was threatened militarily. <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "estatesgeneral"><B>Estates General</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> in French <i>Etats Generaux</i>, consisting of three chambers (estates) - clergy, nobility and the third estate. <A HREF = "../../region/france/xfrance.html">France</A>'s national parliament, which used to assemble about once every three years, for a few weeks, to discuss the King's request for an extraordinary tax. Prior to the French Revolution, the Estates General last met in 1614-1615. The success of Mercantilist policies allowed the French kings to rule without calling for the Estates General to convene (and yet not being urged to confirm or even extend their privileges), hence to rule absolute. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "freemasonry"><B>Freemasonry</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> the Freemasons were a secret society founded in London 1717, claiming a colourful history in order to make fun of the church and the credulity of society in church teachings, devoted to progress of mankind. The Catholic Church was hostile to Freemasonry; nonetheless it spread, recruiting even Royalty among their members. Click <A HREF = "../../period/absolut/secretsoc.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> First Northern War </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#fnwar">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "gallicanchurch"><B>Gallican Church</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A synod of French Catholic bishops in 1682 claimed the Gallican Liberties; in essence they declared that the pope had no right to interfere in the affairs of the Church of <A HREF = "../../region/france/xfrance.html">France</A>. click <A HREF = "../../period/absolut/gallicanism.html">here</A> for more information. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "glorrev"><B>Glorious Revolution</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> (Catholic) King James II. of <A HREF = "../../region/britain/xuk.html">England</A> (1685-1688) alienated many, the fear of a Recatholization policy was widespread. James' protestant son-in-law, (Protestant) William III., stadholder of Holland etc., was called into the country. James II. fled to <A HREF = "../../region/france/xfrance.html">France</A>; William was crowned King. John Locke justified the action (Bill of Rights). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Great Northern War </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#gnwar">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "habsburgdyn"><B>Habsburg Dynasty</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Originally a family of knights named after a castle in Western Switzerland, the family rose to prominence when Rudolf von Habsburg was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1278. He secured the <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xat.html">Duchy of Austria</A> for the family. From 1438 onward, the family held on to the title of Emperor. A policy of diplomatic marriages resulted in the collection of titles - in 1477 the Burgundian Lands, soon after Castile and Aragon (<A HREF = "../../region/spain/xspain.html">Spain</A>, 1516), the <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xbohemia.html">Bohemian Lands</A>, <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xhungary.html">Royal Hungary</A>. In 1558 Emperor Charles V. partitioned his possessions among his son Philip (Spain, Netherlands, Italian poss.) and his brother Ferdinand (title of Emperor; Austrian, Bohemian Lands, Royal Hungary). The Austrian and Spanish lines of the Habsburg Dynasty were allies by virtue of family ties; the Spanish line of the dynasty ended in 1701, the Austrian (male) line in 1740, heiress Maria Theresia married Duke Charles Francis of <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xlorraine.html">Lorraine</A>; the dynasty now was called Habsburg-Lorraine. In English, the erroneous spelling Hapsburg ist sometimes used. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "hoforange"><B>House of Orange</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Short for the family of the Princes of Orange (a small pricipality just north of Avignon in France) and Counts of <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xnassau.html">Nassau</A> (Germany). Properly called the House of Orange-Nassau. William I. the Silent of Orange-Nassau was the central figure in the Dutch Revolt; the individual provinces of the Dutch republic considered only his descendants when (if) electing stadholders. William III. (1672-1702) established his stadholdership in Holland by a coup; the great antagonist of Louis XIV., he was crowned King of <A HREF = "../../region/britain/xuk.html">England</A> in 1689, uniting England and the <A HREF = "../../region/lowcountries/xnederland.html">Dutch Republic</A> in Personal Union 1689-1702. In England the Orange Dynasty ended with him; in the Netherlands the House of Orange is still ruling, since 1813 as hereditary kings. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Huguenot Exodus</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1685, King Louis XIV., regarding himself the Protector of Catholicism, cancelled the Edict of Nantes and sent the French army into the areas inhabited by Protestants (<A HREF = "../../military/17cen/dragonnades.html">Dragonnades</A>), causing France's Huguenots and <A HREF = "../../period/reformation/waldensians.html">Waldensians</A> to leave the country in a mass exodus. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "liberumveto"><B>Liberum Veto</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Introduced in 1652; in <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xpoland.html">Poland</A>'s Sejm (Parliament), everybody had the right to veto any decision. The Liberum Veto virtually immobilized the Sejm. Click <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/eralib.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Mask Ball</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> or masquerade, popular form of entertainment at the court of Versailles and at other royal courts. King Gustavus III. of <A HREF = "../../region/scandinavia/xsweden.html">Sweden</A> was assassinated while attending a mask ball (1792). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Mercantilism </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdmerc.html">Mercantilism</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "officialmistress"><B>Official Mistress</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In French <i>maitresse-en-titre</i>, in 1751 granted to Madame Pompadour, who enjoyed the trust of Louis XV., who had great influence over him. She was succeeded by Madame du Barry. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Opera</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a prominent art form of the 17th and 18th century. Most operas of the time were commisioned by wealthy men, usually at court; operas were performed at courts; in Versailles, attendance at the opera was mandatory to court nobles. Click <A HREF = "../../period/absolut/opera.html">here</A> for more information. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Petrine Reforms</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Reforms implemented by Peter the Great in <A HREF = "../../region/russia/peterdomest.html">Russia</A> 1696-1725, in order to modernize (westernize) his country. Establishment of a navy, the port city and new capital of St. Petersburg, establishment of a mining industry, abolition of the Boyar's Duma, reform of the army, reorganization of the Orthodox Church. Peter also established autocracy. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Polish Partitions</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1772, 1793 and 1795 <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xpoland.html">Poland-Lithuania</A> as partitioned by her neighbours (<A HREF = "../../region/russia/xrussia.html">Russia</A>, <A HREF = "../../region/germany/prusindex.html">Prussia</A>, <A HREF = "../../region/germany/ahindex.html">Austria</A>). Poland-Lithuania, once Europe's largest country, lacked a standing army, and the Sejm (Poland-Lithuania's Parliament) lacked unity, was easily rendered unable to act by the Liberum Veto. Click <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/partitions.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Pragmatic Sanction</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Emperor Charles VI. (1711-1740) had no sons, only a daughter - Maria Theresia (1740-1780). The Pragmatic Sanction was a document drawn up in 1713 to secure succession of the Habsburg lands to his daughter and was signed by the estates of the various Habsburg territories, as well as by numerous foreign powers. Nonetheless, Maria Theresia had to fight the <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#waraustsucc">War of Austrian Succession</A> 1741-1748 in order to secure her inheritance. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Pugachev's Rebellion</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Or Pugachevchina, 1773-1774. Emilyan Pugachev claimed to be Peter III., Catherine the Great's deceased husband. Russian peasants and cossacks rallied to his flag in large numbers; temporarily it was feared he might attack Moscow. Ultimately he was betrayed, caught, tried and executed. Click <A HREF = "../../military/18cen/pugachev.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Sanssouci</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Palace constructed 1745-1747 in Potsdam outside of Berlin for Frederick the Great, King in <A HREF = "../../region/germany/prusindex.html">Prussia</A>, modelled after Versailles. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Sch&ouml;nbrunn</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Palace outside of Vienna (<A HREF = "../../region/germany/ahindex.html">Austria</A>), reconstructed and redesigned in 1686. Residence of Maria Theresia. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Seven Years' War </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#7yearswar">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Siege of Vienna</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> actually the second Ottoman siege of Vienna 1683. Vienna held out for several months; then relief armies (3 German, 1 Polish) arrived and defeated the Ottomans in the Battle of Kahlenberg. Begin of the Habsburg-Ottoman War 1683-1699. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Standing Army </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#standingarmy">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>St. Petersburg</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> founded on swampland along the lower Neva River by Peter the Great in 1702, designed to be the new capital of <A HREF = "../../region/russia/xrussia.html">Russia</A>. In 1914 renamed Petrograd, in 1924 Leningrad, in 1991 again St. Petersburg. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "stuartdyn"><B>Stuart Dynasty</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Originally the Kings of Scotland, ruled also <A HREF = "../../region/britain/xuk.html">England</A> 1603-1649, 1660-1688. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Stuart Restoration</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The restoration of the Stuart Dynasty to the English throne in 1660, in agreement with Parliament, ending the Commonwealth. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Sun King</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <i>Le Roi Soleil</i>, byname for King Louis XIV. of France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Transmigration </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdmerc.html#transmigration">Mercantilism</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "tsarskoeselo"><B>Tsarskoe Selo</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1741 constructed as a "small Imperial farm house", extened into a magnificent palace during the rule of Catherine the Great (1762-1796). Located sw of St. Petersburg, <A HREF = "../../region/russia/xrussia.html">Russia</A>. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Versailles</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Louis XIV.'s palace at Versailles outside of Paris was constructed in 1661 to 1668. It was intended as a palace-capital; kingdom and court were to focus on the king as their center. A lavish court life was to distract nobility and to permit the king to run the country absolute. The expenses of Versailles consumed 4 % of the French national revenue. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> War of American Independence </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#waramind">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> War of Austrian Succession </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#waraustsucc">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> War of Devolution </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#wardev">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> War of the Grand Alliance </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#grandall">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> War of Polish Succession </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#polsucc">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> War of Spanish Succession </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwar1718.html#spansucc">Warfare of the 17th/18th Centuries</A> <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "wittelsbachdyn"><B>Wittelsbach Dynasty</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Various lines of the family ruled the <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xbavaria.html">Duchy of Bavaria</A> and the County of Palatine (here several separate lines). Catholic. Charles Albert of Bavaria briefly (1742-1745) served as Holy Roman Emperor. In Bavaria, the line ruled until 1918. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? "/" + file : file; referer = (document.referrer) ? document.referrer : ""; document.write("<script type=\"text/javascript\" "); document.write("src=\"" + path_to_counterfile + "?chCounter_mode=js&status=" + cstatus + "&visible=" + visible); document.write("&seite=" + file + "&referer=" + referer + "&res_width=" + screen.width + "&res_height=" + screen.height + "\"></" + "script>"); //--> </script> <!-- End of CH Counter --> <BR> </div> </body></html>