ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : From Empire to Nation State </title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2005 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb/tlempnat.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on May 10th 2005 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : From Empire to Nation State </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/nhb/hdempnat.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Anarchism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a philosophy which believed that the capitalist industrial world was corrupt ansd incorrigible. It, and the political system which permitted it to flourish, had to be destroyed, and a better world created on the ruins of the old. In practical terms, Anarchists regarded sabotage and poltically motivated assassinations as justified. Russia's <A HREF = "hdempnat.html#nihilism">Nihilists</A> were anarchists. Later, a democratic branch (Anarcho-Syndicalism) emerged in Spain, Italy, France (Republican Parties, anti-clerical and anti-monarchy). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Anti-Semitism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In most countries of Western and Central Europe, the Jews had been emancipated in the early 19th century; they had willingly assimilated, and many of them had made careers within a now free society. This success had caused the envy of some observers who blamed the misery of others (christians) on the wealth, interpreted as the result of greed, of such successful Jews. The Anti-Semitic <A HREF = "hdempnat.html#pogroms">Pogroms</A> in Russia from 1881 onward caused an influx of Eastern Jews - not assimilated, who, with their appearance (hairstyle, fashion, language) stood out, in constrast to the assimilated Jews, attracting further attention, seen as competition for jobs by unemployed, blamed for their poverty by the poor, because many of the Jews were small merchants, peddlars etc. Some Social Darwinists accepted the 'Race Theory' formulated by French philosopher Arthur de Gobineau who postulated the inequality of human 'races', regarded the 'Nordic Race' the best (because the most warlike. the 'purest') and the 'Jewish Race' the lowest in Europe (because believed the least 'pure'). Anti-Semitism was a wide-spread attitude which occasionally translated into action : <A HREF = "hdempnat.html#pogroms">Pogroms</A> against Jews in Russia since 1881, Anti-Semitic Party in Austria (1882), Dreyfus Affair in France 1894-1899. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Assassinations</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The 19th century saw an upsurge in politically motivated assassination attempts (Czar Alexander II. 1881, Empress Elizabeth of Austria 1898 etc.). A multitude of causes - the churches no longer were able to spiritually control the masses; a better educated populace had increased expectations, exacerbated by a multitude of political ideologies, contradicting with political reality; firearms became more easily accessible, transportation was improved. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Austria-Hungary </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#ah">Central Europe</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Austro-Hungarian Compromise </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#compromise">Central Europe</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Berlin Congress </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#berlincong">Balkans</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Bohemia </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#bohemia">Central Europe</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Boulanger Affair </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Bulgaria </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#bulgaria">Balkans</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Cabinet System</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Political system in which it is customary for the head of state to appoint the parliament majority leader prime minister (resp. minister of state, chancellor). First introduced in the U.K. in 1740; adopted in Belgium in 1830, in the Netherlands and Denmark in 1848, in Sweden in 1864 etc. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "crimeanwar"><B>Crimean War</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1853 the Russians defeated the Ottoman Empire; British diplomats feared Russia might take control of the Straits; an Anglo-French expeditionary corps landed on the Crimean Peninsula and fought the Russians 1853-1856. Cholera epidemic. Russian defeat; Ottoman Empire saved; Danube Principalities unified to form Romania. Click <A HREF = "../../military/19cen/crimeanwar.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Croatia </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#croatia">Balkans</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Dreyfus Affair </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Dual Monarchy </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#dualmonarchy">Central Europe</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Duma </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under Russia </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Emigration</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> the 19th century saw a dramatic increase in emigration, mostly from Europe to the United States, to Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Cape Colony. There was also immigration into Russia. Mainly economically motivated. Then politically motivated emigration (from Germany, persons disappointed by the failure of the Revolution of 1848, of the Polish Rebellions in 1830, 1863, of the Hungarian Revolution 1848; Russian Jews after the <A HREF = "hdempnat.html#pogroms">Pogroms</A> of 1881ff.; immigration into Palestine (<A HREF = "hdempnat.html#zionism">Zionism</A>). Facilitated by improvements in transportation (railroads, steamships) </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Exile</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Where political activity was restricted, political leaders as well as intellectuals (censorship) fled to countries with a freer environment. Paris and London attracted a community of exiles, from Germany (1840es-1850es), Poland, Hungary, the Balkans, Russia. Frederic Chopin, Karl Marx, Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) all lived in exile. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Finland </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdscand.html#finland">Scandinavia</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>First Vatican Council</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> held 1869-1870, while the remainder of the Papal State was occupied and annexed by Italy. Marks the restructuring of papal policy and the Catholic Church; was suspicious of Liberalism; proclaimed Papal Infallibility in doctrinal / ethical matters. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Franco-German War </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#fgwar">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "gerunif"><B>German Unification</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Aspired by German patriots since the early 19th century; attempted in the German Revolution of 1848-1849. Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck (since 1862) took the opportunity provided by a Prussian advantage in military technology (Needle Gun) and the prevalent political desire for national unification in most German States, and, in a series of wars (against Denmark 1864, against Austria 1866, against France 1870-1871) achieved German Unification (according to the Smaller German Solution, without Austria, dominated by Prussia). Germany's princes proclaimed the Kaiserreich (new German Empire) in Versailles in 1871 </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Ireland </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under Britain and Ireland </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Irish Home Rule Bill </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under Britain and Ireland </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>IRC</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> International Red Cross. Established in 1863, on the initiative of Jean Henri Dunant, a Swiss businessman. Headquarters in Geneva. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Italian Unification </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hditaly.html#itunif">Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Kaiserreich </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#kaiserreich">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Kulturkampf </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#kulturkampf">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Latin Monetary Union</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Created in 1865 by France, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy and Greece. In 1867, Austria-Hungary joined. Established a standard of coins which were valid throughout the union (Franc in France, Belgium, Switzerland). Based on the Gold Standard; practically dissolved in World War I </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Liberal State</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A state built on liberal principles - written constitution, equality in front of the law (which did not necessarily mean universal adult manhood suffrage), freedom of the press, of assembly, of association, civil rights, separation of church and state, freedom of religion. Often centralistic. Promoted Freedom of Trade, Laissez-Faire policy; protection of property. Belgium was the first state in Europe to fit this description. Click <A HREF = "../../const/parl/libstate.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Liberation of the Serfs</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Suggested by enlightenment reformers; implemented by Revolutionary France; by Prussia in 1807, in Estonia in 1816, in Austria in 1848, in Russia in 1861. In England and the Netherlands, no specific dates can be given; phased out in the 18th century. The liberation of the serfs freed the previous owner from the obligation/costs to lodge, clothe and feed them. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Magyarization </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#magyarization">Central Europe</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Mayerling </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#mayerling">Central Europe</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Multiple Voting</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The 19th century saw the expansion of the franchise. In many countries the voting right was tied to property; in Sweden, f.ex., this system provided a poor man with one vote, a wealthy man with many votes. The principle <i>one person - one vote</i> was accepted in Europe only after a complex process. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Nationalism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a political philosophy, aiming at achieving a nation state based on the equality of al citizens, on justice. In the early stage of the 19th century, this nation state was envisioned (Mazzini et al.) to be a republic based on liberal principles. The nation state was defined by the common language of her citizens. Early nationalism (until c.1840) was a movement uniting Europe's bourgeoisie in their struggle against the Ancien Regime. From 1840 onward conflicts between nationalists of various countries arose; in the later 19th centyry, nationalism became increasingly intolerant and aggressive toward other nations. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Nationalists</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In the English language often used synonymously with patriot. In the case of 19th century Italy, Germany, Poland etc. there is a problem - persons loyal to Hannover, Bavaria, the Kingdom of Two Sicilies or Austria-Hungary may be regarded as patriots. Those whose loyalty was to an imaginary German, Italian, Polish nation state (nationalists) were regarded by the contemporary police authorities as subversives </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "nihilism"><B>Nihilism</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> I) a philosophy denying God and the creation (Darwin, Nietzsche). from Lat. nihil = nothing <BR> II.) Russian anarchist movement, targetting representatives of Russian political system. Active in the 1860es to 1880es, responsible for thousands of assassinations (Alexander II. in 1881). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Norway</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Since 1814 in Dynastic Union with Sweden; in 1884 Parliamentarism introduced. Union with Sweden was unpopular; Norway's economic interests were different from Sweden's, in 1905 the Norwegians, in a plebiscite, overwhelmingly opted for dissolution of the union. Ever since independent. Click <A HREF = "../../region/scandinavia/xnorway.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Pacifism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> political philosophy realizing the danger imminent in an increasingly competitive nationalism and in the mechanization of warfare. Jean Henri Dunant, Alfred Nobel, Pierre de Coubertin were prominent pacifists. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Papal State </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Dissolved in 1859-1870. see under <A HREF = "hditaly.html#papalstate">Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Paris Commune </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Parliamentarism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Parliament being a permanent institution rather than one meeting every three years; parliament discussing all political topics rather than merely to approve a budget or not. Parliament regularly being elected. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "pogroms"><B>Pogroms</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Mob violence targetting a minority group. The term became part of political vocabulary when Russian authorities, at the instigation of Czar Alexander III., pressured the christian inhabitants to attack their Jewish neighbours (Russian pogroms, 1881ff. The authorities did neither protect the victims nor prosecute the perpetrators. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Polish Rebellion of 1863</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> in Congress Poland, suppressed by Russian forces. Resulted in harsh measures by the Russian administration of Congress Poland. Click <A HREF = "../../military/19cen/polishreb1863.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Political Parties</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The 19th century saw the transition from an elite democracy (where such a democracy existed) to a mass democracy. While in early parliaments political groupings existed, and were referred to as parties, they lacked organization. In the mid 19th century, political parties - with statutes, membership roster, elected leadership - were formed, which quickly became an essential factor in political life. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Proportional Representation</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The concept that a party should have seats in parliament corresponding o the percentage of votes it got nationwide. Introduced in <A HREF = "hdscandinavia.html#sweden">Sweden</A> in 1906; after World War I introduced in most countries of Continental Europe </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Reichsrat </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdeurope.html#reichsrat">Central Europe</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Romanian Unification</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#danprinc">Danube Principalities</A> (<A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#wallachia">Wallachia</A>, <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#moldavia">Moldavia</A>) from 14th century to 19th century; from 1396/1512 onward vassalls of the <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#ottoman">Ottoman Empire</A>; in the 19th centuy frequently occupied by <A HREF = "hdrussia.html#russia">Russia</A>. Following the Crimean War, encouraged by Britain, the two principalities merged to form the Kingdom of Romania 1859/1862. Click <A HREF = "../../region/balkans/xromania.html">here</A> for more information</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Russian Revolution of 1905 </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under Russia </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "russification"><B>Russification</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a policy of enforced assimilation in areas where ethnic minorities lived. Imposing Russian as the language of education, administration, jurisdiction; forcing minority churches to merge with the <A HREF = "hdrussia.html#rusothodox">Russian Orthodox Church</A> etc. Caused resentment among the minorities (<A HREF = "hdscandinavia.html#finland">Finland</A>, <A HREF = "hdeceur.html#lithuania">Lithuania</A> etc.) </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Russo-Ottoman War 1877-1878</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Since the <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#tkkainarji">Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji</A> 1774, <A HREF = "hdrussia.html#russia">Russia</A> claimed to protect the Orthodox Christians in the <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#ottoman">Ottoman Empire</A>. When Ottoman forces brutally suppressed a Bulgarian Rebellion in 1876, <A HREF = "hdrussia.html#russia">Russia</A> declared war and defeated the Ottomans in a war which cost her significant losses. The subsequent <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#tsstefano">Treaty of San Stefano</A> created a large, independent Bulgaria, not accepted by Britain. See <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#berlincong">Berlin Congress</A>. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Scandinavian Monetary Union </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdscand.html#smu">Scandinavia</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Schleswig-Holstein </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#slh">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Second Empire </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Secret Ballot</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> in the early 19th century, voters publicly declared for whom they voted. The secret ballot was an innovation introduced first in Australia (Victoria 1856), adopted by the U.K. in 1872. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Seven Weeks War </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#7weekswar">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Sick Man of Europe </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#sickman">Balkans</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Suffragettes</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Women campaigning for <A HREF = "hdempnat.html#uaws">Universal Adult Womanhood Suffrage</A>. Most prominent British suffragette Emeline Pankhurst </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Tanzimat Reforms </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#tanzimat">Balkans</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Temperance Movement</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> political movement for banning alcohol, emerged in the early 19th century; strong in the U.K., Scandinavia, the U.S. Many of the activists were women; alcohol was blamed both for abusive behaviour of husbands and for deficiencies in the family budget </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Third Republic </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Treaty of San Stefano </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#tsstefano">Balkans</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Universal Adult Manhood Suffrage</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> concept of the French Revolution; inroduced by <A HREF = "hdfrance.html#france">France</A> in 1848, by <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#germany">Germany</A> in 1871. Elsewhere, suffrage long was restricted by property, literacy restrictions. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Urbanization</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 19th century Europe experienced an urbanization stronger than any earlier or later period in history. As the electoral districts were not regularly redrawn in order to reflect reality, this caused a distortion in election results. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "uaws"><B>Women's Suffrage</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> First introduced in New Zealand in 1893; in Europe in <A HREF = "hdscandinavia.html#finland">Finland</A> 1906, 1907/1913 in <A HREF = "hdscandinavia.html#norway">Norway</A>, in 1915 in <A HREF = "hdscandinavia.html#denmark">Denmark</A> and <A HREF = "hdscandinavia.html#iceland">Iceland</A>. After WW I introduced in most European countries. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "zionism"><B>Zionism</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> political ideology regarding assimilation as failed and striving for the establishment of a Jewish nation state. Theodor Herzl's bok "The Jewish State" (1896); Zionist Congresses held since 1897; Jewish immigration to (Ottoman) Palestine since 1880es. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Zollverein </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#zollverein">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> </font></TD> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? 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