ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : French Revolution </title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2009 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb/tlfrrev.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on April 19th 2009 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : French Revolution </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/nhb/hdfrrev.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Assignat</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> paper money issued in France from 1790 onward. Security was the condiscated church land. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Batavian Republic</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1795 French armies occupied the Dutch Republic which was reconstituted as the Batavian Republic. It was reconstituted again as the Kingdom of Holland in 1806. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Cisalpine Republic</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Established on June 9th 1797 by the merger of the Cispadan and Transpadan Republics. Capital Milan. In 1797 annexation of the Venetian Terraferma west of the Adige ( Treaty of Campoformio). In 1802 renamed Republic of Italy. French satellite state. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Citoyen</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Pre-revolutionary France had an absolute monarch; the people were his subjects (who had only duties). Revolutionary France defined the state as "La Nation" and elevated the sujets (subjects) to citoyen (citizens). Citizens not only have duties, but also have rights. See Declaration of Human Rights. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Cocarde</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> also called cockade, the tricolore turned by 360 degrees, a symbol which if attached to hat, cap etc. would identify he wearer as a supporter of the Revolution. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Code Civile</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Or Code Napoleon, law book based on the principles of liberte, egalite, fraternite, published in 1804. It gained validity even outside of France, in parts of Italy and Germany, and forms the basis for modern French legislation. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Concordat of 1801</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a peace treaty concluded by France and the Papal State (Napoleon Bonaparte, Pius VII., ending for both the state of war with each other (Second War of the Coalition). France recognized the sovereignty of the Papal State; Pope Pius VII. recognized the confiscation of church property in France etc. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Confederation of the Rhine</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Organization created by Napoleon in 1807, following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. All German states except for Austria and Prussia were members. In effect, the Confederation was a tool in the hands of Napoleon I. It was dissolved in 1813. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Continental Blockade</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A policy declared by Napoleon I. to harm England by blocking access to the European market. The policy did have an impact on the British economy, caused Britain to abolish Transatlanic Slave Trade (1807), but also had an impact elsewhere : the Caribbean plantation economy went through a severe crisis; Belgium underwent an early Industrialization of its own (protected from British competition), smuggling trade became big business; Russian nonchalant attitude in regard to the Continental Blockade was among the reasons for Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Effectively the Continental Blockade was over in 1813. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Consulate</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 1799-1804, succeeded the Directory, preceded the Empire. Consisted of 3 consuls, who were supposed take turns, each ruling for a year. The first consul was Napoleon Bonaparte; contrary to the agreement obn taking turns, Napoleon held on to the position until he crowned himself Emperor in 1804. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Cult of Reason</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> in 1792-1794 introduced to replace the (churches closed in May 1793, Catholic mass forbidden in 1795) Catholic Church; made use of Masonic symbolism. Napoleon's concordat of 1801 effectively ended the cult. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Declaration of the Rights of Man</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> La Declaration des Droits de l'Homme et du citoyen, adopted on July 26th 1789, a document containing the basic principles of the revolution (liberte, egalite, fraternite); it prepared the constitution. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Directorate</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 1795-1799. Succeeded the National Convention; preceded the Consulate. Composed of 5 directors who took turns for a term of two weeks; leading figure R. Barras. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Emancipation of the Jews</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In France granted in 1806; see under Great Sanhedrin </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Empire</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> France 1804-1814. Succeeded Consulate, preceded restored Bourbon monarchy. Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Fasces</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A bundle of sticks with the blade of an axe sticking out (could be a double blade). Since Roman times a symbol for justice. Adopted as a symbol of the French Revolution (and by other movements). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Girondins</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> or the Gironde, political faction in the French Revolution, moderate supporters of the Revolution. Named after the region where many of their supporters came from. Basically dissolved when Louis XVI. was sentenced to death in 1792. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Grand Armee</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Name for the French army which invaded Russia in 1812. When it entered Russian territory it was 600,000 strong (mostly composed of Germans who had been pressed into Napoleon's army); 110,000 reached Moscow; during the retreat 30,000 reached the Beresina, 5,000 managed to cross it and to return from Russia in early 1813. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Great Sanhedrin</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Assembly of Jewish rabbis and laymen assembled in Paris in 1806 with the task to reform Europe's Jewry. In connection with its convocation, Napoleon granted France's Jews full emancipation. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Guillotine</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Machine invented for the humane (quick) slaughter of pigs, but used for executions during the French Revolution (much to the regret of the inventor) </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Holland, Kingdom of</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The Batavian Republic was reconstituted as the Kingdom of Holland in 1806, with Napoleon's brother Louis as king. In 1810 The Kingdom of Holland was annexed by France. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Hundred Days</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> March 20 1815 (Napoleon's return from Elba) to July 18 1815 (defeat at Waterloo) </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Italy, Kingdom of</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The Second War of the Coalition had brought the temporary occupation of the territory of the Cisalpine Republic by coalition forces, which regarded the republic illegitimate and restored the Duchy of Milan. In the Treaty of Luneville 1801, Austria recognized French hegemony in northern Italy. The Cisalpine Republic was restored (June 1800); in 1802 renamed Republic of Italy. Capital was Milan; the republic was a French satellite state. In 1805 it was transformed into the Kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon Bonaparte as king. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Jacobins</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The radical party in France's revolutionary parliament. The Jacobins dominated the National Convention, are responsible for most of the reforms, but also for the Terror Phase of the French Revolution. Jacobin rule ended in 1794 wih the execution of their leaders Robespierre and Saint Just. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>King of Rome</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Napoleon's son from his second wife Marie Louise of Habsburg, born in 1811. After the fall of Napoleon he as given the title "Duke of Reichstadt"; he died in 1832. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Legislative Assembly</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> France October 1791 to September 1792. Predecessor National Assembly (which dissolved itself after the king signed the constitution); successor National Convention. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Liberte, Egalite, Fraernite</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Liberty, equality, fraternity (= brotherhood). Motto of he French revolution. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Ligurian Republic</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1797 the Republic of Genova, occupied by French troops, was reorganized as the Ligurian Republic. In 1805 it was annexed into France. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The Duke of Braunchweig (Brunswick) was commander of the Prusso-Austrian force which in 1792 made their way toward Paris. The Duke expected to soon arrive in Paris and called upon the Parisians not to resist when his force entered the city. The manifesto was presented to King Louis XVI. of France before being published in the streets of Paris. His approval to the pubication was interpreted by many Frenchmen as a betrayal of the revolution; he was arrested, deprived of his title (citoyen Capet), tried and later executed. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Marseillaise</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Fench national anthem, reflecting the situation in 1792 before the Canonade of Valmy - the achievements of the French Revolution were threatened by foreign invaders; the song is a call to arms. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Metric System</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Introduced in France in 1791, abolished again by Napoleon. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Nation</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Pre-revolutionary France had an absolute monarch; the people were his subjects (who had only duties). Revolutionary France defined the state as "La Nation" and elevated the sujets (subjects) to citoyen (citizens). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>National Assembly</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> or National Constituent Assembly, July 9 1789 to September 30 1791. Dissolved itself after he king had signed the constitution. Barred their members from running for the successor Legislative Assembly. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>National Convention</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795. Succeeded Legislative Assembly, preceded Directorate. Dominated by the Jacobins. Passed many reforms. Runs parallel with the Reign of Terror, and with civil war against the Royalists. The coup which resulted in the execution of Robespierre July 28 1794 marks the end of the phase of radical reforms and of the terror. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Nepotism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The policy to grant privileged treatment to ones relatives. After Napoleon crowned himself Emperor and had made himself maser of much of continental Europe, he made his brothers kings : Joseph first of Naples, then of Spain, Louis of Holland, Jerome of Westphalia, a state Napoleon created. Napoleon also took care of his brothers-in-law, of his leading military officers etc. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Phrygian Cap</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a symbol of the French Revolution, also used earlier in the American Revolution </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Polish Partition, Second & Third</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 1793 and 1795. While the First Polish Partition had cost Poland large territories, Poland still was one of the largest countries in Europe. But for the last century, when other counries modernized under the combination of mercantilism, absolutism and enlightenment, Poland had stagnated. The reason was the country's dysfunctional constitution, a parliament which was powerless because every member had the veto right. Poland lacked a standing army. A reform party took control of the Polish parliament, the Sejm (1788), and adopted a modern written constitution (1791), Europe's second (after France). The nobles regarded the action of the reformers a coup d'etat, and in the Convention of Targowice 1793, invited Czarina Catherine the Great of Russia to take over the country. Poland's neighbours sped up the process of the Polish partition, because they regarded Warsaw another revolutionary center; they wanted to stamp out the "revolutionary bacillus". </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Popular War</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Spain from 1795 to 1808 was a loyal ally of France. In 1808 Napoleon in a meeting with King Ferdinand of Spain and "suggested" to the latter that he and his crown prince should abdicate so that Napoleon's brother Joseph could become King of Spain. One ignored Napoleon's suggestions at one's own peril; Joseph became King of Spain. French-style liberal reforms followed. However, here the church had remained in control of public opinion; the French were regarded regicides and atheists. While Spain's regular army was loyal to Joseph Bonaparte, much of the population was not. The people rose up against French rule, and in the process defined "guerilla warfare"; supported by the British, they fought according to their own rules, avoiding open battles. Spain became "Napoleon's Ulcer"; by 1813 the French defeat was evident; King Ferdinand VII. restored in 1814. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Reichsdeputationshauptschluss</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 1803. Recent events had resulted in the French annexation of the west bank of the Rhine and in the establishment of French satellite republics all over northern Italy. In the process a number of dynasties lost land or were completely ousted from their possessions. Napoleon suggested them to be compensated by the confiscation of ecclesiastical territories and smaller entities within the Holy Roman Empire; this suggestion was implemented in the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss 1803. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Republican Calendar</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Valid 1793-1805, replaced and was succeeded by the Gregorian calendar. Months vendemiaire, brumaire, frimaire, nivose, pluviose, ventose, germinal, floreal, prairial, messidor, hermidor, fructidor </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Royalists</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> French opponents of the revolution, often led by nobles or clergy. When the royal family was arrested in 1792 and the king was accused of treason, the royalists left the Legislative Assembly; France entered the stage of civil war. One of the strongholds of the royalists was the Vendee. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Storm of the Bastille</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> on July 14th 1789. It was widely presumed that the Bastille would be a bastion of the Ancien Regime, in which innocent political prisoners would be held and tortured. According to other accounts, the "storm" was not about freeing prisoners, but gunpowder being stored there. The "storm" has been much romanticized; when the Basille had been taken by the mob, a total of 7 prisoners were freed. By November 1789 the Bastille had been demolished. Bastille day to this day is celebrated in France as national holiday. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Tennis Court Oath</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> taken by most of he members of the Third Estate on June 20th 1789 in which they declared themselves to be the National Assembly, and that they would not disband until the king would sign the constitution </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Terror, Reign of</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> September 8 1793 to July 29 1794. The French Revolution was engaged in a defensive war against a coalition of foreign invaders and in a civil war against the royalists. France's state and society were in the process of restructuring. Nobles, many of whom functioned as officers but were reluctant to fight for France as a victory of the enemies might reestablish feudalism and therefore be in their interest, were egarded as traitors by the Jacobins. During the Reign of Terror, many of them (and other individuals regarded illoyal to he revolution) were either sentencd and guillotined, or lynched by the mob by being hanged from the next lanternpost. Nobles walking the streets of Paris in those days better wore the cocarde attached to their hats. Number of victims of the terror estimated between 20,000 and 40,000. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Tree of Liberty</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a symbol indicating the liberation of a town/city from freudalism and the Ancien Regime; adopted from earlier such trees in the American Revolution. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Tricolore</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> French flag, the three colours representing the motto liberte egalite fraternite. Tricolor flags of other nations are adaptations representing the constitutional element. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Valmy, Cannonade of</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> September 20th 1792. Here the French repelled an invading Prusso-Austrian army. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Varennes, Flight to</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> June 20-21 1791. Swedish nobleman Axel von Fersen organized for Marie Antoinette, Louis XVI. and their children to escape Paris incognito in a coach heading for the border to the Austrian Netherlands. They were stopped in Varennes, recognized and sent back to Paris. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Vendee</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Region in western France, stronghold of the Royalists. In 1792-1794 revolutionary armies conquered part of the Vendee, and in the conquered regions committed genocide. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Wars of Liberation</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> (later part of the War of the Sixth Coalition), War of the Allies (at first Britain, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, later joined by Austria etc.) against Napoleon 1813-1814; decisive event Battle of the Nations at Leipzig Oct. 16-19 1813; ended with Napoleon's abdication on April 6th 1814. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>War of the Coalition, First</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 1792-1797. The war began with an attempt of the coalition to suppress the revolution in France. In 1795, Spain and Prussia concluded separate peace with France. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Campoformio in October 1797. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>War of the Coalition, Second</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 1799-1803. France now faced Austria, Russia and Britain as enemies. The main theatre of war was in northern Italy and Switzerland, where the Russian army under Suworov achieved a number of victories. The Cisalpine Republic was overrun, the Piemontese Republic terminated. When Russia, disgruntled about British actions, left the coalition, the French regained the upper hand, and restored the Cisalpine Republic (in 1802 renamed Italian Republic). The war was concluded with the Treaties of Luneville (with Austria, 1801) and of Amiens (with Britain, 1803). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>War of the Coalition, Third</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 1805, Britain, Russia, Austria, Sweden versus France and Spain. British naval victory at Trafalgar (where Lord Nelson died); French victories on land (Battle of Austerlitz); Treaty of Sch&ouml;nbrunn 1805. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Warsaw, Grand Duchy of</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Established in 1807 from territory ceded by Prussia, expanded in 1809 when Ausrian territory was annexed. The Grand Duke in dynastic union was also King of Saxony. Saxony-Warsaw was a loyal ally of Napoleon. In effect terminated in 1813; abolished by the Vienna Congress in 1815 (4th Polish Partition). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Waterloo, Battle of</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> battle ending the Napoleonic wars, fought on July 18th 1815 at Waterloo, just south of Brussels. For much of the day it appeared as if Napoleon would be victorious over the British forces under Wellington, when the arrival of Prussian forces on the battleground decided the battle. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Westphalia, Kingdom of</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A kingdom located in northwestern Germany, created in 1807 by Napoleon Bonaparte by merging a number of territories. Its one and only king was Napoleon's brother Jerome. Terminated in 1813. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> </font></TD> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? "/" + file : file; referer = (document.referrer) ? document.referrer : ""; document.write("<script type=\"text/javascript\" "); document.write("src=\"" + path_to_counterfile + "?chCounter_mode=js&status=" + cstatus + "&visible=" + visible); document.write("&seite=" + file + "&referer=" + referer + "&res_width=" + screen.width + "&res_height=" + screen.height + "\"></" + "script>"); //--> </script> <!-- End of CH Counter --> <BR> </div> </body></html>