ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : Germany </title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2005-2007 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb/tlgermany.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on April 20th 2005, last revised on October 31st 2008 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : Germany </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/nhb/hdgermany.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Anschluss </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#anschluss">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "asl"><B>Anti-Socialist Laws</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Following <A HREF = "hdempnat.html#gerunif">German Unification</A>, Chancellor Bismarck was concerned about the rising influence of political parties, prominent among which the Social Democrats (<A HREF = "hdgermany.html#spd">SDAP</A>). In the 1870es there were several assassination attempts targeting Kaiser Wilhelm I. and Bismarck himself; the assassins were of a working class origin and had socialist resp. anarchist views. Bismarck blamed the social democratic movement for these terrorist acts and had the Anti-Socialist Laws passed in order to curb the activity of social democratic organizations (not the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#spd">SDAP</A> herself). The laws were enacted in 1878 and phased out with Bismarck's retirement in 1890; they resulted in the radicalization of part of the movement. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "austria"><B>Austria</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Originally a term referring to the Duchy of Austria (Upper and Lower Austria). Historians, for the time from 1286 to 1806 often refer to Austria as the complex of Habsburg territorial possessions (<A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austrianlands">Austrian lands</A>, since 1526 plus the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#bohlands">Bohemian Lands</A> and Royal Hungary, since 1699 plus all of Hungary etc.). From 1806 to 1866 it referred to the entire territorial complex of the <A HREF = "hdabs.html#habsbdyn">Habsburg Dynasty</A>; from 1866 to 1918 to the 'Austrian' half of <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#ah">Austria-Hungary</A> (including <A HREF = "hdeceur.html#galicia">Galicia</A>, <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#bukovina">Bukovina</A>, the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#bohlands">Bohemian Lands</A>, <A HREF = "hditaly.html#dalmatia">Dalmatia</A>), since 1918 it refers to modern Austria. Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xaustria.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "austrianlands"><B>Austrian Lands</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The <A HREF = "hdabs.html#habsbdyn">Habsburg Dynasty</A> acquired the Duchies of Austria and Styria 1276/1282, Carniola in 1282/1335, Carinthia in 1335, Tyrol in 1363. This complex of territories formed the basis of the <A HREF = "hdabs.html#habsbdyn">Habsburg Dynasty</A>; while the territories maintained their political institutions and identities, they took on the additional identity as Austrian lands; modern Austria grew out of this foundation. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Baader-Meinhof Gang</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A term by which <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A> authorities in the 1970es to 1980es referred to the RAF. Named after two founder-leaders, Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof. See under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#raf">RAF</A>. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "bavaria"><B>Bavaria</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In German : Bayern. Until 1806 Duchy within the hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>, until 1918 Kingdom. Ruled by the Wittelsbach Dynasty. During the Reformation, Bavaria established Counterreformation Catholicism as state religion, lead the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#cathleague">Catholic League</A> into the Thirty Years' War; in the 18th century, Bavaria, in alliance with France, pursued an anti-Habsburg policy. Allied with Napoleon until 1813, beneficiary of the political changes in Germany in those years; allied with <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A> in the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#7weekswar">Seven Weeks War</A> 1866, allied with <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> in the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#fgwar">Franco-German War</A> 1870-1871, then included in unified Germany (with special degree of autonomy). Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xbavaria.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "berlin"><B>Berlin</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> City in <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#brandenburg">Brandenburg</A>; established in the 13th century; became the residence of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#elector">Electors</A> of <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#brandenburg">Brandenburg</A> in 1486, the capital of the Brandenburgian (since 1701 <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A>n) state; German capital since 1871. From 1945 to 1990 under Allied occupation, divided into sectors; Soviet sector in 1961 handed over to <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A>, which immediately had the <A HREF = "hdecw.html#berlinwall">Berlin Wall</A> built. From 1949 to 1990 Berlin was the nominal capital of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A>, the seat of administration Bonn. (East) Berlin functioned as the capital of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A> since 1949. Largest city of Germany </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Berlin Airlift </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdpostwar.html#bairlift">Post-War Years, 1945-1949</A> <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Berlin Blockade </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdpostwar.html#bblockade">Post-War Years, 1945-1949</A> <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Berlin Wall </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdecw.html#berlinwall">Early Cold War</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "bohlands"><B>Bohemian Lands</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</A>, the Duchies of Silesia, the Counties of Lusatia and Moravia. In Dynastic Union since the 13th century; under Habsburg rule since 1526. The Hussite movement in the early 15th century was a predecessor of the Reformation; the Thirty Years War began as an attempt of the Bohemian Estates to free themselves from Habsburg rule. The <A HREF = "hdabs.html#habsbdyn">Habsburg Dynasty</A> reestablished control and took revenge, eliminating most of <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#bohemia">Bohemia</A>'s nobility. During the following centuries, <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#bohemia">Bohemia</A> was ruled by a German nobility and Catholic clergy. Lusatia was ceded to <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#saxony">Saxony</A> in 1635, most of Silesia to <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> in 1742/1745. Within <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#ah">Austria-Hungary</A>, Bohemia-Moravia became the most industrialized region; in the 19th century, the Czechs and Slovaks developed national identity distancing themselves from <A HREF = "hdabs.html#habsbdyn">Habsburg Dynasty</A> and German, Hungarian nations; in WW I they took the "this is not our war" attitude. Pan-Slavism began in <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#bohemia">Bohemia</A> in 1848; in 1918 <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</A> was established, in 1939 dissolved, in 1945 recreated, in 1993 dissolved. The Bohemian Lands (<A HREF = "hdceurope.html#bohemia">Bohemia</A>, Moravia, Austrian Silesia) now form the <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#czr">Czech Republic</A>. Compared to the 19th century, the lands have lost most of her Jewish and German population elements (see <A HREF = "hdibger.html#sudetenland">Sudetenland</A>). Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xbohemia.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "brandenburg"><B>Brandenburg</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> One of the larger territories of the Holy <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Roman Empire</A>, although rather poor (sandy soil, no mining, no access to the coast; no major cities in the Middle Ages). The Golden Bull of 1356 assigned the Margrave of Brandenburg one of the 7 <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#elector">electoral votes</A>. <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#xollern">Hohenzollern Dynasty</A> gained Brandenburg in 1415; with the Great Elector Friedrich Wilhelm (1640-1688) came the establishment of a Standing Army and a policy of expansion. Capital <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#berlin">Berlin</A>. In 1701 dynasty was elevated to <i>Kings in Prussia</i> (Kings of <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> since 1772); <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#berlin">Berlin</A>/Brandenburg remained the center of their possessions, but the name <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> came into use for their complex of territories. See under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A>. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Burschenschaft </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdrest.html#burschenschaft">Restauration and Early Nationalism</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Carlsbad Decrees </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdrest.html#carlsbaddecr">Restauration and Early Nationalism</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "cathleague"><B>Catholic League</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>, the Catholic League was founded in 1609, in response to the establishment of the <A HREF = "hdwor.html#protestantunion">Protestant Union</A> the previous year. This Catholic League was lead by Duke Maximilian of <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#bavaria">Bavaria</A>, and dedicated to the extermination of Protestantism. A major force in the <A HREF = "hdwor.html#30yearswar">Thirty Years War</A>. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "chancellor"><B>Chancellor</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In the middle ages, court office; the chancellor was responsible for writing official documents (signed by King/Emperor) and to keep an archive. The office was recreated in 1871, corresponding with that of a prime minister. The <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#kaiserreich">Imperial</A>, <A HREF = "hdibger.html#weimar">Weimar</A> and <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A> constitutions provided for a powerful, but passive - representative Emperor / President, leaving active policy in the hands of the chancellor. Click <A HREF = "../../biographies/meh/mbioge1.html">here</A> for a list of office holders </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Colonies, German</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Germany, unified in 1871, was a latecomer in the race for overseas possessions. Bismarck long rejected any overseas acquisition, but in 1884 changed his conviction (Berlin Conference 1884-1885); Germany acquired 4 colonies in Africa : Togo, Cameroon, German South West Africa = Namibia), German East Africa (= Tanzania); 5 in the Pacific (Western Samoa, German New Guinea, the Caroline Islands, the Marshall Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands) and the Chinese concession of Kiautschou. Germany lost all of her colonies during World War I; in the late 1930es (Appeasement), briefly the return of Germany's former colonies was considered by the British. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Concentration Camps </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#conccamp">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "confrhine"><B>Confederation of the Rhine</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> An organization founded in 1807, replacing the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A> - but pro-French, comprising of all German states except for <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> and <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A>. Dissolved in 1813. The leading members - <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#saxony">Saxony</A>, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#bavaria">Bavaria</A> etc., benefitted from the French Alliance (gained territory). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "danzig"><B>Danzig</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> in Polish : Gdansk. The city dates back into the 13th century, came under the rule of the <A HREF = "hdeceur.html#teutorder">Teutonic Order</A> in 1309. Took on Lubian Law, city council and the guilds using German language and excluding non-Germans. Prominent member of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hanse">Hanseatic League</A>. Participated in Prussian Revolt in 1453-1466; accepted Polish sovereignty (Royal Prussia). Introduced Lutheran Reformation in 1557. Located on the mouth of the Vistula River, the city controlled Poland's grain exports. Annexed by <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> in the <A HREF = "hdeceur.html#polpart">Second Polish Partition</A> 1793; split from Germany and declared a Free City in 1920. World War II began in Danzig in 1939; after WW II annexed by <A HREF = "hdeceur.html#poland">Poland</A>; the city's German population majority was expelled in 1946. Hometown of Arthur Schopenhauer, G&uuml;nter Grass and Lech Walesa. Click <A HREF = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/xdanzig.html">here</A> for more information. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> "Degenerate Art" </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#degart">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Dolchstoss Legend </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#dolchstoss">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "elector"><B>Electors</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A> was an elective monarchy. Emperor Charles IV. in the Golden Bull of 1356 fixed the electors to the holders of the Duchies of <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#brandenburg">Brandenburg</A>, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#saxony">Saxony</A>, the King of <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#bohemia">Bohemia</A> and the Count Palatine by the Rhine, and to the Archbishops of Cologne, Mainz and Trier (7 in total). Later (17th century) the Dukes of <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#bavaria">Bavaria</A> and of <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hannover">Hannover</A> were added. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Enabling Act </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> (Empowerment Act, Erm&auml;chtigungsgesetz), see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#enabact">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Final Solution </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#finalsolution">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "fgwar"><B>Franco-German War</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In English often refered to as the Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871. <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#bavaria">Bavaria</A>, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#saxony">Saxony</A> and most other German states (except for <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A>) allied themselves with <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A>; the war was a sound German victory, ended the Second Empire in France, brought about the Paris Commune, the Third Republic (France) and <A HREF = "hdempnat.html#gerunif">German Unification</A>, decided upon in Versailles' Hall of Mirrors. Click <A HREF = "../../military/19cen/francoger.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Free Imperial City</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> or Immediate City. In the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>, there were cities under the authority of territorial princes (f.ex. <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#wien">Vienna</A>, under the Dukes of <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A>, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#berlin">Berlin</A>, under the Dukes of <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#brandenburg">Brandenburg</A>) and cities free of territorial rulers, only placed under the Emperor himself. They were politically autonomous, the dependence on the Emperor showing in Imperial taxes and in a change in their law requiring Imperial approval. Among the more famous Free Imperial Cities were Cologne, Frankfurt, N&uuml;rnberg (Nuremberg), Augsburg, Regensburg, Bremen, Hamburg, L&uuml;beck. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Freikorps </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#freikorps">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "frg"><B>FRG</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Federal Republic of Germany (in German : Bundesrepublik Deutschland, BRD), established in 1949 (then consisting of the British, French and American Zones), often referred to as West Germany. Seat of government Bonn (until 1989). Joined <A HREF = "hdeintr.html#eec">EEC</A> in 1957, <A HREF = "hdecw.html#nato">NATO</A> in 1956; former <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">East Germany</A> was integrated in 1990 (<A HREF = "hdgermany.html#reunif">German Reunification</A>), the seat of government moved back into the capital <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#berlin">Berlin</A>. Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xfrg.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> F&uuml;hrerprinzip </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#fuhrerprinzip">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "gdr"><B>GDR</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> German Democratic Republic (In German : Deutsche Demokratische Republik, DDR), estabished in 1949; socialist. Joined <A HREF = "hdcew.html#comecon">COMECON</A>, <A HREF = "hdcew.html#warsawpact">Warsaw Pact</A> in 1955, constructed <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#berlinwall">Berlin Wall</A> in 1961. After the fall of the <A HREF = "hdecw.html#berlinwall">Berlin Wall</A> in 1989 it democratized and was absorbed by the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A> (<A HREF = "hdgermany.html#reunif">German Reunification</A> 1990). Capital <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#berlin">Berlin</A>. Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xgdr.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>German-Danish War</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Following another rebellion in (Danish) <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#slh">Schleswig-Holstein</A> in 1864, Austria and <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> declared war; the Danes were quickly defeated and ceded both Schleswig and Holstein with Lauenburg. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>German Dualism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a term describing the situation in Germany 1740-1866, when two great powers - <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A> and <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> - vied for hegemony in Germany. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "gerfed"><B>German Federation</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Loose federation of German states under Austrian leadership, established in 1815. <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A> left the federation in 1866, the remaining members (except for Liechtenstein, Luxemburg) unified in 1871 to form Germany. Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/gerfed181548.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>German Peasants War</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A series of regional peasant rebellions 1524-1526, caused by a deterioration in living conditions (rising feudal burden) and desire for social reform, triggered by Martin Luther's bible translation and agitated by radical priests. In most areas, the peasant hordes were easily defeated by knightly armies; the peasants were successful in Graub&uuml;nden. Click <A HREF = "../../military/16cen/gerpeaswar15241525.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "reunif"><B>German Reunification</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> During the Cold War, Germany was divided into the democratic, west-oriented <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A> and the communist <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A>; Berlin formally still occupied by the Allies, similarily was partitioned in East and West. On November 9th 1989, demonstrations of East German citizens caused the border to be opened; East Germany underwent a quick transformation. Negotiations with the 4 victorious powers removed the obstacles to unification, and on October 3rd 1990 the former <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A> was absorbed into the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A>. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> German Revolution of 1848-1849 </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdrest.html#gerrev">Restauration and Early Nationalism</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> German Revolution of 1918-1919 </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#rev1918">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> German Unification </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdempnat.html#gerunif">From Monarchy to Nation State</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "germany"><B>Germany</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> until 1815 a merely geographical term, as Germany historically went through the phases of the East Frankish kingdom, since the 10th century in contemporary sources referred to as the Roman Kingdom, which became part of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>, in the 16th century referred to as the Holy Roman Empire of German Nationality. The HRE disintegrated into states and statelets, most of which in 1807 founded the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#confrhine">Confederation of the Rhine</A>, in 1815 the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gerfed">German Federation</A>. <BR> German national consciousness was strengthened during the Lutheran Reformation, and again from the early 19th century onward, when Romanticist novelists and scholars propagated German national identity. <BR> Germany became a clearly defined political entity with <A HREF = "hdempnat.html#gerunif">German Unification</A> in 1871, again going through stages, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#kaiserreich">Kaiserreich</A> (Empire) 1871-1918, <A HREF = "hdibger.html#weimar">Weimar Republic</A> (1919-1933), <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#3rdreich">Third Reich</A> (1933-1945), occupied Germany (1945-1949), divided Germany (<A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A>, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A> 1949-1990) and Reunified Germany (since 1945). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Gleichschaltung (Synchronization) </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#gleichschaltung">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Government by Decree </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#govdecr">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "greatergermansolution"><B>Greater German Solution</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> During the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#gerrev">German Revoluton</A> of 1848-1849, the concept of a unified Germany that would include the German-speaking regions of <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A>. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Habsburg Dynasty </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdabs.html#habsbdyn">Absolutism</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "hannover"><B>Hannover</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Branch of the Welfen (Guelph) Dynasty; originally called the Duchy of <BR> Braunschweig-Calenberg. in 1692 elevated to <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#elector">Electorate</A> of Hannover; in 1714-1837 in Dynastic Union with England. Under English protection, Hannover expanded. In 1815 elevated to Kingdom. In 1866 annexed by <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A>. In English, Braunschweig is sometimes spelled Brunswick, Hannover Hanover. Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xhannover.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "hanse"><B>Hanseatic League</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Established in the 13th century as a union of northern German merchants; they came to dominate trade in the North and Baltic Seas and acquired privileges for themselves; in the 14th century transformed into a league of cities. They repeatedly fought wars against <A HREF = "hdscand.html#denmark">Denmark</A>, <A HREF = "hdscand.html#norway">Norway</A>, <A HREF = "hdscand.html#sweden">Sweden</A>, even against England. Declined in the 16th century; the Hanseatic cities of Bremen, Hamburg and L&uuml;beck mantaind their quasi-independence until 1871. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "zollern"><B>Hohenzollern Dynasty</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> originating from Zollern Castle; since 1415 Margraves of Brandenburg, since 1701 Kings in <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A>, 1871-1918 German <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#kaiserreich">Kaisers</A> <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "hre"><B>Holy Roman Empire</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 800, Pope Leo III. crowned Charlemagne (Western Roman) Emperor, reviving a title which had not been used since 476. After the partitioning of the Frankish Kingdom in 843/880, the rulers of the East Frankish Kingdom by tradition became the only monarchs of Europe who qualified for the title. The East Frankish Kingdom, in contemporary sources, came to be referred to as the Roman Kingdom (to which the Kingdoms of Italy and Burgundy were added in the 11th century). Historians refer to it as "the Empire" (the only Empire in Latin Christianity); Humanist historians called it the <i>Holy Roman Empire of German Nationality</i>. It was dissolved in 1806 (<A HREF = "hdgermany.html#rdh">Reichsdeputationshauptschluss</A>). Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xhre.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "hyperinflation"><B>Hyperinflation</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Germany suffered twice from Hyperinflation, once 1919-1923, once in 1945-1948. As a result, German governments were more concerned in their fight against inflation than some other governments </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Imperial Diet</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#reichstag">Reichstag</A>. An assembly in which the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">HRE</A>'s princes, princebishops, immediate counts, knights and cities were assembled, and which was usually attended by the Emperor himself. As the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Empire</A> had no capital, the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#reichstag">Reichstag</A> was assembled once here, once there; individual sessions are named after the city where they met (f.ex. Diet of Worms 1521). The diet dealt with matters of mutual concern, i.e. the Emperor's request of additional taxes, the threat of war, the religious regiment. Since 1663 the Imperial Diet met in Regensburg. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "kaiserreich"><B>Kaiserreich</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Unified Germany 1871-1918 (Kaiser = Emperor). While the constitution provided for universal adult manhood suffrage, the authority of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#reichstag">Reichstag</A> (parliament) was rather limited; the chancellor (until 1890 Bismarck) ruled as a servant of the Kaiser. Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xreich.html">here</A> for more information</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "kulturkampf"><B>Kulturkampf</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> (culture struggle) Unified Germany contained a number of predominantly Catholic regions. Bismarck interpreted the Catholic clergy as having a loyalty conflict and attempted to separate Germany's Catholics from Rome. The Kulturkampf lasted from 1871 to 1890. A number of bishops served jail terms. The effect was rather the opposite of what Bismarck had intended; the Catholics organized themselves; the Catholic Zentrum Party became the second strongest party in Germany. The Kulturkampf was phased out in 1890 when Bismarck retired. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> "Kristallnacht" </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#kristallnacht">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> "Lebensraum im Osten" </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#lebensraum">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> March on the Feldherrnhalle </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#feldherrnhalle">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> "Mein Kampf" </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#meinkampf">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "mondaydemo"><B>Monday Demonstrations</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Weekly demonstrations held after religious service in the Nicolai Church in Leipzig, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A>, in 1989. The numbers swelled until they reached 70,000 on Nov. 9th 1989. State Council President Erich Honecker, for that day, had ordered armed forces to intervene; the forces refused, Honecker retired; that night, in <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#berlin">Berlin</A> the borders were opened. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Nazis </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#nazis">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> NSDAP </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#nsdap">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Nuremberg Race Laws </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#racelaws">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Ostpolitik</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A policy pursued by the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A> since 1969, started by chancellor Willy Brandt. Detente policy, negotiating treaties with the communist countries of Eastern Europe, including the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A> and USSR. the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A> offered credit in hard currency; the eastern European governments made concessions (family reunion; visits etc.). Willy Brandt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "paulskirche"><B>Paulskirche Assembly</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> All-German Parliament of the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#gerrev">German Revolution</A> of 1848-1849, assembled in St. Paul's Church (Paulskirche) in Frankfurt (Main). Nicknamed the Parliament of the Professors. Had to solve two major problems - the constitutional issue and the issue of German unification, and to deal with the problem of which territories were German and which were not. Failed to solve any of these matters, was dissolved by the force of arms. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Peace of Westphalia</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 1648, ended the <A HREF = "hdwor.html#30yearswar">Thirty Years War</A>. Apart from territorial changes, it confirmed the <A HREF = "hdref.html#rpaugsburg">Religious Peace of Augsburg</A>, and extended recognition to Calvinist faith. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Protestant Union </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwor.html#protestantunion">Wars of Religion</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "prussia"><B>Prussia</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1701 the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#elector">Elector</A> of <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#brandenburg">Brandenburg</A> (simultaneously Duke in Prussia) was elevated to the rank of king - not of Brandenburg, that was located inside the Empire, but <i>in Prussia</i>, because Prussia was outside of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Empire</A>. The name Prussia came to stick to the entire territorial complex ruled by the Hohenzollern Dynasty. As Mirabeau observed, Prussia was not a state with an army, but an army with a state. In continually expanded, until Prussia became the core of unified Germany in 1871. Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/prusindex.html">here</A> for more information. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "raf"><B>RAF</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Rote Armee Fraktion (Red Army Fraction); West German group of urban terrorists founded by Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof. Their campaign of terrorism began in 1968, reached a climax in 1977-1978. Many of the terrorists lived incognito in the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A>, entering West German soil only when planning / executing a plan. In the 1990es many were arrested, the organization destroyed. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "rdh"><B>Reichsdeputationshauptschluss</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Act of dissolution of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A> 1806. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "reichstag"><B>Reichstag</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The name of the Parliament of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A> until 1806, and then of the German Parliament from 1871 to 1945 (<A HREF = "hdgermany.html#kaiserreich">Kaiserreich</A>, <A HREF = "hdibger.html#weimar">Weimar Republic</A>, Nazi Germany). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Religious Peace of Augsburg </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdref.html#rpaugsburg">Reformation</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Rhineland Separatism </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#rhineland">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> SA </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#sa">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "saxony"><B>Saxony</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> There are a number of German territories which, at various periods of time, have been referred to as Sachsen (Saxony). Here we focus on the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#elector">Duchy-Electorate</A> of Saxony. In the early 16th century, it was split in two lines, Ernestine Saxony and Albertine Saxony. Ernestine Saxony, capital Wittenberg, was the center of the Lutheran Reformation. Most of Ernestine Saxony, following the <A HREF = "hdref.html#schmalkaldicwar">Schmalkaldic War</A>, was annexed by Albertine Saxony (hence : Saxony). In 1635, S. annexed Lusatia. Temporarily, Saxony and Poland were united in Personal Union. In 1806, Saxony was elevated a Kingdom; in 1815 it had to cede half its territory to <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A>; in 1871 Saxony joined in the unification of Germany. Saxony combined fertile land with a mining, woodwork and glass industry. The capital was Dresden, the economic center Leipzig, with her famous trade fair. Wettin Dynasty. Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xsaxony.html">here</A> for more information. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "slh"><B>Schleswig-Holstein</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Two Duchies, Holstein (part of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>), Schleswig (Danish spelling Slesvig; historically part of Denmark). In the late middle ages, both Duchies were united in Dynastic Union, their rulers, for most of the time, antagonists of the Danish kings. In 1460 the estates of Schleswig and Holstein merged, intending this union to be permanent. Lower German became the language of the estates as well as the dominant language in the cities of Schleswig. In the course of the 18th century Schleswig-Holstein, Lauenburg and Denmark were united in Dynastic Union. During the 19th century, Danish demands for a unified Danish state (in which Schleswig was to be integrated) caused two rebellions in Schleswig, supported by the Holsteiners - 1848-1849 and 1864. The latter caused the German-Danish War of 1864, after which Denmark ceded Schleswig, Hiolstein and Lauenburg to <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> and Austria. In 1866 all of Schleswig-Holstein was annexed by <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A>. In 1920 a plebiscite was held in Northern Schleswig, part of which opted for reintegration into Denmark. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Schmalkaldic League</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Established by Germany's Protestant Princes and cities in 1531; dissolved after the defeat in the <A HREF = "hdref.html#schmalkaldicwar">Schmalkaldic War</A> in 1546-1547. Not all protestant princes and cities were members. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Schmalkaldic War </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdref.html#schmalkaldicwar">Reformation</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "7weekswar"><B>Seven Weeks' War</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> War between <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> and her German allies on one side, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A> and her German allies (<A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hannover">Hannover</A>, Hessen-Kassel, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#bavaria">Bavaria</A>, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#saxony">Saxony</A> etc.) on the other; Italy declared war on <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A>. Fought in 1866. The Austrians were victorious in engagements with the Italians; decisive battle at K&ouml;niggr&auml;tz / Sadowa a Prussian victory. <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A> ceded Venice to Italy; <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A> left <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gerfed">German Federation</A>; <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> annexed <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#slh">Schleswig-Holstein</A> (hitherto jointly administrated), <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hannover">Hannover</A>, Hessen-Kassel, Nassau, Frankfurt (although the city had remained neutral during the conflict). Step toward German Unification. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>SED</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (United Socialist Party of Germany), established by forced merger of KPD (Communists) and <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#spd">SPD</A> (Social Democrats) in the Soviet occupied zone of Germany; the SED dominated politics in the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A>, although other political parties existed. In 1990 renamed PdS (Party of Democratic Socialism, still existing, now opposition </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "smallergermansolution"><B>Smaller German Solution</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Term used during the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#gerrev">German Revolution</A> of 1848-1849 and in subsequent years, refering to the plan of a unified Germany without <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A>, under Prussian leadership. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "spd"><B>SPD</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Two predecessors founded in 1863 and 1869 respectivelly merged in 1875, then called SDAP (Social Democratic Workers' Party). Grew rapidly; suffered from Bismarck's <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#asl">Anti-Socialist Laws</A> (1878-1890), became Germany's largest political party. Supported the war effort in 1914, was included in an all-party government during the war. Until 1917, the party represented the entire labour movement and included both a conservative social democratic wing, seeking for improvements through labour negotiations and the democratic process, and a radical wing seeking change through the means of revolution. In 1918 the party was the leading force in setting up the <A HREF = "hdibger.html#weimar">Weimar Republic</A>; the radical wing, on the other hand, engaged in the <A HREF = "hdibger.html#rev1918">German Revolution</A> of 1918-1919. The SPD rejected the <A HREF = "hdibger.html#enabact">Enabling Act</A> of 1933; many social democrats were arrested, maltreated in concentration camps. In the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A>, the SPD was in government 1969-1982, and since 1998. The German SDAP / SPD is among the oldest parties of her kind and influenced many other European social democratic / socialist parties. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> SS </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#ss">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "stateoftheestates"><B>State of the Estates</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In German : St&auml;ndestaat, a state controlled by the Estates (Diet) rather than by its monarch. In continental Europe, an important phase in pre-absolutist constitutional history, that is, in many territories. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Stein-Hardenberg Reforms</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Reforms implemented in <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> following the defeat at the hands of the French. Introduced by leading administrators (reforms imposed from above); they included Liberation of the Serfs, an Ordinnance for the cities emphasizing self-administration, Freedom of Trade, the Emancipation of the Jews, the introduction of Mandatory Military Service. Implemented 1807-1813. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Sudetenland </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#sudetenland">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "3rdreich"><B>Third Reich</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> When Hitler / the NSDAP took power in 1933 they wanted to distance the new Germany from the despised Weimar Republic; the Nazis referred to the new phase of German history (1933-1945) as the "Third Reich" (third empire, after HRE and Kaiserreich) or "Empire Lasting a Thousand Years". </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Thirty Years' War </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdwor.html#30yearswar">Wars of Religion</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Versailles, Treaty of </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#tversailles">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Wannsee Conference </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#wannsee">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "nurembergwct"><B>War Crimes Tribunals</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Held in Nuremberg (in German : N&uuml;rnberg) in 1946. Here the worst offenders accused of crimes against humanity, which the Allies were able to arrest, were tried (21 in total, plus one tried in absentia). 11 were sentenced to death, 8 to lengthy prison terms, 3 were acquitted. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "warsofliberation"><B>Wars of Liberation</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Fought 1813-1815, wars liberating Germany from French occupation; much celebrated in German historiography of the 19th century. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "wehrmacht"><B>Wehrmacht</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> German army 1871-1945; grew out of Prussian military tradition. Dissolved in 1945; from 1945-1955 the two German states (<A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A>, <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A>) did not have armies. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Weimar Republic </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibger.html#weimar">Interbellum Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>West Integration</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1955 the Soviets offered the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#frg">FRG</A> German unification as a democratic state according to the Austrian model (i.e. undr the obligation to maintain neutrality). The West German government instead opted for West-Integration (entry into <A HREF = "hdecw.html#nato">NATO</A>, <A HREF = "hdeintr.html#eec">EEC</A>; the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#gdr">GDR</A> in turn entered <A HREF = "hdeintr.html#comecon">COMECON</A> and <A HREF = "hdecw.html#warsawpact">Warsaw Pact</A>; both states established armies. 1955 and after. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "zollverein"><B>Zollverein</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> German for Customs Union. In the early 19th century, the fragmented political landscape in Germany (43 states) provided an obstacle to economic development. Various Zollvereine were founded; the one lead by <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#prussia">Prussia</A> proved the most successful, and in the 1830es to 1850es was joined by most German states except for <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#austria">Austria</A>. An economic predecessor of unified Germany (1871). Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/zollverein.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> MORE DETAILED ONLINE HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES, BY COUNTRY : <BR> At WHKMLA : <A HREF = "../germany/hdgdrper.html">GDR</A> (East Germany, 1945-1990), <A HREF = "../germany/hdaustriaper.html">Austria</A> <BR><BR> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> Wilfried Fest, <B>Dictionary of German History 1806-1945</B>, London : George Prior 1978, 189 pp. <B>[G]</B> <BR> Tim Kirk, <B>Cassell's Dictionary of Modern German History</B>, London : Cassell 2002, 480 pp. <B>[G]</B> <BR> Paula S. Fichtner (ed.), <B>Historical Dictionary of Austria</B>, London : Scarecrow 1999, 328 pp., KMLA Lib. Call Sign <B>R 943.6 F445h</B> <BR> Jiri Hochman, <B>Historical Dictionary of the Czech State</B>, London : Scarecrow 1998, 272 pp., KMLA Lib. Call Sign <B>R 943.71 H686h</B> <BR> Derek Lewis, <B>Historical Dictionary of Contemporary Germany</B>, Lanham Md.: Scarecrow 2007, 673 pp. [G] <BR> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> </div> </body></html>