ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : Southern Europe (Italy & Switzerland) </title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2005-2007 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb/tlitaly.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on April 31st 2005, last revised on June 22nd 2007 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : Southern Europe (Italy, Switzerland) </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/nhb/hditaly.html </i></font> <BR><BR> For more detailed Historical Dictionaries, click <A HREF = "../italy/hditalyper.html">Italy, English-English</A>, <A HREF = "../italy/hditalyalphve.html">Italy, Italian-English</A>, <A HREF = "../italy/hdswitzerlandper.html">Switzerland, English-English</A> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Acerbo Law </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibit.html#acerbo">Fascist Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "avignon"><B>Avignon</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> City in the Provence. Historically part of the Kingdom of Burgundy. The city and the adjacent Venaissin belonged to the Papal State from the 14th century to 1791. From 1309 to 1409, popes resided in Avignon. See under Babylonian Captivity of the Church and under Great Schism. Part of France since 1791. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Battle for Grain </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibit.html#bgrain">Fascist Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Battle of Agnadello</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Venetian defeat in the War of the League of Cambrai, in which the <A HREF = "#rvenice">Republic of Venice</A> fought against an alliance consisting of France, the Emperor and the Pope. Ended Venetian expansionism. May 14th 1509. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Battle of Pavia</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Victory of the Imperial forces against the French, Feb. 23rd 1525. Part of a series of wars fought between Habsburg Emperor Charles V. and King Francis I. of France, fought over control of <A HREF = "#milan">Milan</A>. In the Battle of Pavia, King Francis I. was taken prisoner. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Blackshirts </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibit.html#blackshirts">Fascist Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Campo Formio, Treaty of</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Signed between France and Austria in Oct. 1797. Austria formally ceded the Austrian Netherlands, France; Austria, France partitioned the Republic of Creation of <A HREF = "#cisalpinerep">Cisalpine Republic</A>. The conditions were formulated by French general Napoleon Bonaparte. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "carbonari"><B>Carbonari</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> literally : coal burners. Name of patriotic Italian secret organizations working for the overthrow of the monarchies, for revolutions in the early 19th century. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "cisalpinerep"><B>Cisalpine Republic</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Created out of the territory of the Duchy of <A HREF = "#milan">Milan</A> in 1797; 1799-1800 occupied by Austro-Russian troops. In 1802 expanded, renamed Republic of Italy. French satellite state. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Conclave</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A meeting of cardinals, behind closed doors, after the death of a pope. The sole purpose of the conclave is to elect a new pope. Black smoke indicates no candidate having gaind the majority; white smoke a new pope having been elected (habemus papam). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "concordat"><B>Concordat</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Treaty between a state and the pope, concerning the organization and status of the Catholic church in the respective state. The two most important concordats in Italian history were (1) The Concordat with France, of 1801. The <A HREF = "#papalstate">Papal State</A> formally ceded <A HREF = "#avignon">Avignon</A> and the Venaissin, accepted the confiscation of most of the property of the Catholic Church; Napoleon agreed to the reestablishment of the Catholic Church in France. (2) The Concordat with Italy of 1929. The Catholic Church agreed to stay out of Italian politics; Italy formally recognized the independence of <A HREF = "#vatican">Vatican City</A>. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Corporate State </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibit.html#corpstate">Fascist Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "dalmatia"><B>Dalmatia</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, consisting of numerous islands and a stretch of coastal territory. Until into the early 20th century, the population was predominantly Slavic, with a strong Italian element concentrated on the islands and on the city of Zara (Zadar). In the middle ages contested between the <A HREF = "#rvenice">Republic of Venice</A> and the Kingdom of Hungary, later between Venice and the Ottoman Empire. Annexed by Austria in 1815; neglected by the Habsburg administration. Contested by Italy, <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#shs">SHS</A> after World War I, the larger part annexed by <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#shs">SHS</A>. In WW II part of <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#croatia">Croatia</A>; from 1945 to 1992 part of <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</A>, since, part of <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#croatia">Croatia</A>. Click <A HREF = "../../region/balkans/xdalmatia.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "dci"><B>DCI</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Democrazia Christiana Italiana, (Christian Democratic Party), established in 1942. With c. 40 % of the votes (and the communists having another 40 %) no government in Cold War Italy could be formed without the DCI. At the demise of <A HREF = "#mafiocracy">Mafiocracy</A>, the party was discredited without prospect for recovery. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Duce Cult </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibit.html#ducecult">Fascist Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Fascism </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibit.html#fascism">Fascist Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "fiume"><B>Fiume</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> City on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, Croatian name Rijeka. In the early 18th century declared a free port, main port of the Kingdom of Hungary. After World War I contested by Italy, <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#shs">SHS</A>; declared a Free City. In 1919 occupied by nationalist Italian Gabriele d'Annunzio and his followers; in 1920 he was ousted by regular Italian forces. Italy annexed Fiume in 1924; Italy ceded Fiume to <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</A> in 1947. Since 1992 part of the <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#croatia">Republic of Croatia</A>. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xfiume.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "florence"><B>Florence, Republic of</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In the late middle ages, the city of Florence, within the scope of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A> (whose authority in Italy was nominal), was independent. The city council ruled over the city and over much of the surrounding countryside. The Medici family greatly exceeded the other families represented in the city council in wealth and power; the Medici were expelled in 1494 and again in 1527. Returning with a Habsburg army, the Republic was turned into the Duchy of Florence in 1537, renamed the <A HREF = "#tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</A> in 1569 </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Geneva</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> City and canton in Switzerland. Formerly subject to the <A HREF = "#savoy">Duke of Savoy</A>, with the aid of Bern the city gained independence. Geneva accepted the Reformation in 1536; in 1541 the council recalled Jean Calvin and became the center of the Calvinist Reformation. In the 19th century the Genevan Conventions were held here; in 1920 the city was chosen as the seat of the League of Nations. In French : Geneve </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "genoa"><B>Genoa, Republic of</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In the Late Middle Ages, Genoa was among the leaders in Mediterranean trade, in competition with <A HREF = "#pisa">Pisa</A> and <A HREF = "#rvenice">Venice</A>. The city and the adjacent region of Liguria, nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire, was in all practicality independent. She was governed by a city council in which the leading families were represented. Genoa had a number of overseas possessions, among them Caffa in the Crimea (until 1477) and Corsica (until 1768). In the 16th and 17th century a Spanish ally; in 1815 annexed by <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Savoy-Piemont-Sardinia</A>. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Handshake of Teano</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Oct. 26th 1860; Garibaldi met King Victor Emmanuel, handed over his conquest of the <A HREF = "#duesicilie">Kingdom of Two Sicilies</A> and retired to <A HREF = "#sardinia">Sardinia</A>. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Holy League</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The Holy League was initiated by Pope Julius II. and formed by the Pope, the Emperor, <A HREF = "#rvenice">Venice</A>, Switzerland, Aragon-Castile and England, directed against France, which, after the Battle of Agnadello 1509 threatened to establish hegemony. The War of the Holy League lasted from 1510-1516. Click <A HREF = "../../military/16cen/holyleague.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Irredentism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> When Italy annexed Venetia in 1866 and Latium in 1870, the process of Italian unification was concluded. Yet some Italian patriots claimed there were further regions with a majority of Italian speakers outside the borders of Italy - Nice (Nizza), Corsica (France), Trento, Istria, <A HREF = "l#fiume">Fiume</A>, parts of Gorizia and <A HREF = "l#dalmatia">Dalmatia</A> (then Austrian). The policy claiming such areas, as pursud by Italy in WW I, is called Irrendentism (from <i>Italia Irredenta</i>). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Istria</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Peninsula in the northeastern Adriatic, between Trieste and <A HREF = "#fiume">Fiume</A>. Had a complex history; under Habsburg rule from the 15th century until 1918. The population was partly Slavic, partly Italian, the Italian element concentrated in the coastal region, on the islands and in the cities. After World War I annexed by Italy. After World War II partially annexed by <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</A> (the larger part of Yugoslav Istria Croatian, the smaller part Slovenian); the city of Trieste remained Italian. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "itunif"><B>Italian Unification</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Ever since the Lombard invasion of Italy in A.D. 568, the peninsula was partitioned into a number of political entities. Machiavelli (1527) blamed the papacy for being the main obstacle to Italian unification, for her inability to fend off foreign invasions. In the early 19th century the idea of Italian Unification, promoted by Giuseppe Mazzini, found many supporters (<A HREF = "#youngitaly">Young Italy</A>). The revolutionaries of 1830 and 1848 wanted to achieve unification; Cavour and Garibaldi in 1859-1860 achieved major steps in that direction (in alliance with France, defeat of Austria in Franco-Austrian War; annexation of <A HREF = "#lombardy">Lombardy</A> by Piemont-Sardinia; revolutions in Modena, Parma, Tuscany, the Marches; annexation into Piemont-Sardinia following plebicites; conquest of Kingdom of Two Sicilies by Garibaldi, Handshake of Teano). The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861. Venetia was annexed in 1866, Latium in 1870. The Republic of San Marino and the Principality of Monaco maintained their political independence. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/itunif.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "kgditaly"><B>Italy, Kingdom of</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> (1) The first Kingdom of Italy was Lombard, conquered by the Franks in 773/774, emerging as a Frankish kingdom in the 9th century. It covered Northern Italy except for Venice and the <A HREF = "#ppetri">Patrimonium Petri</A>; in 1004 Emperor Henry II. was crowned King of Italy. The Kingdom became part of the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>. Second Kingdom of Italy : In 1805 Napoleon Bonaparte transformed the Republic of Italy into the Kingdom of Italy, himself king. In the following years the territory of the kingdom was repeatedly extended; in 1813 the kingdom was abolished. <BR> (2) In 1861, the enlarged Kingdom of Sardinia (i.e. the state of <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Piemont-Sardinia</A>) was reconstituted as Kingdom of Italy. The monarchy was abolished in 1947, following a referendum. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Italy, Republic of</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> (1) Former <A HREF = "#cisalpinerep">Cisalpine Republic</A>, renamed Republic of Italy in 1802, transformed into Kingdom of Italy in 1805. <BR> (2) Vision of Giuseppe Mazzini. <BR> (3) Italy since 1947, when the monarchy was abolished. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Latium</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In Italian : Lazio, region around Rome. Latin is the language spoken in Latium in antiquity. In 1860, an area roughly identical with Latium was occupied by French troops - the remainder of the <A HREF = "#papalstate">Papal State</>, occupied and annexed by Italy when the French troops withdrew in 1870. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>League of Cambrai</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> An alliance of the Pope, Emperor, France, Castile-Aragon against the <A HREF = "hditaly.html#rvenice">Republic of Venice</A>, formed in 1508. The decisive battle was fought at Agnadello 1509, where the Venetians were defeated. Dissolved in 1510, when Pope Julius II. initiated the Holy League directed against France. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "lvenetia"><B>Lombardo-Venetia</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The Vienna Congress combined the Italian territories of the former <A HREF = "#rvenice">Republic of Venice</A> with the Duchies of <A HREF = "#milan">Milan</A> and Mantua to form the new Kingdom of Lombardo-Venetia (under Habsburg rule). Austria ceded <A HREF = "#lombardy">Lombardy</A> to France in 1859, Venetia to Italy in 1866. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "lombardy"><B>Lombardy</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Region around Milan in northern Italy, named after the Lombards (Langobards), a Germanic people which conquerd the country in 568. Center Milan. In the Late Middle Ages the Duchy of <A HREF = "#milan">Milan</A>; from 1815 to 1859 part of <A HREF = "#lvenetia">Lombardo-Venetia</A>; in 1859 Austria ceded Lombardy to France, whih ceded it to <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Piemont</A>. Very fertile. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "mafia"><B>Mafia</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In history, <A HREF = "#sicily">Sicily</A> has been conquered numerous times. The Sicilians have adapted to the changing foreign administrations by developing a culture of Omerta - not communicating with the state authorities (perceived as foreign) and not playing by the rules established by these state authorities. The Mafia padrones often were wealthy Sicilian landowners. Sicilian emigrants brought the Mafia structure to the United States, where the prohibition (1919-1933) provided them with an opportunity to turn a culture of adapting to foreign occupation into big business, In post-war Italy, a non-functional democratic system permitted the Mafia, by the means of corruption, to exploit the situation. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "mafiocracy"><B>Mafiocracy</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In post-war Italy, two parties dominated the political landscape - the Communists and the <A HREF = "#dci">DCI</A> (Democrazia Christiana), both receiving c. 40 % of the votes. During the Cold War, an Italy which was NATO member, could not have a govrnment formed by communists. Hence, The DCI had to form coalition governments with smaller parties. Italy's governments changed frequently, the main change being the person of prime minister - the question was, which DCI politician would lead the cabinet, not if the DCI would do so. This system opened up opportunities for corruption. Italy's 6-time pm Giulio Andreotti had accepted financial donations from the Mafia. When, in the early 1990es, connections between Italy's politicians and the Mafia were unveiled, the term Mafiocracy was coined. The traditional political parties were discredited; a number of politicians was sentenced to jail. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Malta</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A group of islands south of <A HREF = "#sicily">Sicily</A>. Conquered by the Normans of Sicily during the crusades; the Maltese still speak a form of Arabic, written in the Latin Alphabet. In 1530, Emperor Charles V. granted Malta to the Knights of St. John (Knights Hospitaller; hence Maltese Knights). Briefly held by Napoleon, British 1799-1964, independent since. Malta was a military bulwark in the Habsburg-Ottoman conflict Great Siege 1565) and of the British in World War II (unsinkable carrier); it was an important port within the British Empire. Capital La Valetta. Population Catholic. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xmalta.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "marches"><B>Marches</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Territory belonging to the <A HREF = "#papalstate">Papal State</A> (until 1859), located on the Adriatic Sea, around Ancona. Austro-French occupation 1832-1840; in 1860 occupied, annexed by Italy </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> March on Rome </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibit.html#marchonrome">Fascist Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "mezzogiorno"><B>Mezzogiorno</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Southern region of Italy, former Kingdom of Two Sicilies, economically underdeveloped and stagnating. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "milan"><B>Milan</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In Roman times : Mediolanum. Capital of the Lombard <A HREF = "#kgditaly">Kingdom of Italy</A>; seat of a Catholic Archbishop. Capital of the Duchy of <A HREF = "#milan">Milan</A> (Visconti, Sforza Dynasties). In the early 16th century contested by King of France and Emperor. Spanish (1535) 1556-1706; Austrian 1706-1797, 1815-1859. Italian since 1859; commercial capital of Italy. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "modena"><B>Modena</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Historic Principality in northern Italy. Emerged when the possessions of the Dukes of Ferrara (Este) were split. Fief of the <A HREF = "#papalstate">Papal State</A>. A Revolution in 1859 ousted the dynasty; a plebiscite approved annexation into <A HREF = "l#savoypiemont">Piemont</A> (future Italy). Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xmodena.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "naples"><B>Naples</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In Italian : Napoli, in Antiquity : Neapolis or Parthenopaea. Since the 11th century capital of the Norman Kingdom of Naples, from 1504 to 1707 Aragonese/Spanish, from 1707 to 1735 Austrian, from 1735 to 1860 (with a brief interruption during the Napoleonic years) a separate kingdom under a sideline of the Spanish Bourbons, under the name <A HREF = "l#duesicilie">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</A>. Until into the 19th century, one of the largest cities of Europe; university. Following Italian unification, Napoli suffered as her industries suffered from the abolition of protective tariffs. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "knaples"><B>Naples, Kingdom of</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Norman Kingdom established in the 11th century, 1194-1254 under the Staufer Dynasty (who also were Emperors), 1254-1504 Angevin (without Sicily, lost to Aragon in 1282); 1505-1707 (Aragonese) Spanish, 1707-1735 Austrian, 1735-1799, 1799-1806, 1815-1860 a separate Kingdom under a sideline of the Spanish Bourbon Dynasty (<A HREF = "#duesicilie">Kingdom of Two Sicilies</A>). 1799 briefly the Parthenopaean Republic; 1806-1815 Kingdom of Naples (without <A HREF = "#sicily">Sicily</A>) under Joaquin Murat. In 1860/1861 annexed by <A HREF = "l#savoypiemont">Piemont</A> (future Italy). Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xnaples.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Nepotism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> promoting one's relatives to well-paid, influential positions. A vice of many popes. The papacy, for centuries, was dominated by Italians; Influential Roman and Italian families contested for control of the papacy, not without economic motives. Corsican Napoleon Bonaparte also was a nepotist. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Northern League</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> One of several political organizations striving for the secession of northern Italy from Italy. Realizing, that the economic structure of Italy - industrialized north, administrative center, underdeveloped, subsidized south (<A HREF = "#mezzogiorno">Mezzogiorno</A>) had not changed in over a century of unified Italy, they suggested secession. Neither the name nor the extension of the northern state were fixed. <A HREF = "#padania">Padania</A> was a suggested name for the conceived state. When Italy underwent political transformation in the early 1990es, separatism - during the late <A HREF = "#mafiocracy">Mafiocracy</A> a hotly discussed issue - lost support. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "padania"><B>Padania</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Name suggested for a separatist state in northern Italy, after Po River (In Latin : Padus) </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "papalstate"><B>Papal State</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In A.D. 568, the Lombards invaded (then Byzantine) Italy, taking most of the countryside, but failing to take Rome, Ravenna. The Bishop of Rome (pope) functioned as the Byzantine governor, only to face the situation that in time of threat (war with the Lombards) Byzantium refused to send aid. The Franks did, and recognized the popes as rulers over a stretch of territory in central Italy (<A HREF = "#ppetri">Patrimonium Petri</A>). Papal propaganda based the papal claim on the territory on a donation associated to Roman Emperor Constantine. Border changes over the century; in the 15th and early 16th century the popes played part in the Italian Wars. Enclave <A HREF = "#avignon">Avignon</A>/Venaissin in the Provence 14th century-1791. Papal State partitioned/annexed by France, Kingdom of Italy 1808-1815, then restored by Vienna Congress. Revolution 1848/1849. <A HREF = "#romagna">Romagna</A> annexed by Italy 1859; <A HREF = "#marches">Marches</A> 1860; Latium protected by French force 1860-1870, then annexed into Italy. Italian forces never entered <A HREF = "#vatican">Vatican</A>; Italy recognized Vatican independence in <A HREF = "#concordat">Concordat</A> of 1929. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xpapalstate.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "parma"><B>Parma</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Historical duchy in northern Italy, fief of the <A HREF = "#papalstate">Papal State</A>. Ruled by a sideline of the Spanish Bourbon Dynasty 1748-1802; reestablished in 1814, given to Napoleon's Habsburg wife. In 1847 restored to the Dukes of Bourbon-Parma. Revolutions in 1848, 1859. In 1859 the ruling family was ousted; a plebiscite approved annexation by <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Piemont</A> (future Italy). Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xparma.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "partisans"><B>Partisans</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Italian resistance fighters. Following the establishment of the <A HREF = "#rsalo">Republic of Salo</A> in summer 1943, Partisan groups organized themselves and took action against Salo officials as well againt the Germans. In the last days of the war, Italian Partisans arrested Mussolini, tried and executed him on the spot. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "ppetri"><B>Patrimonium Petri</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Core of the <A HREF = "#papalstate">Papal State</A>, to which the so-called Constantinian Donation applied. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> PNF </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibit.html#pfi">Fascist Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Piemont</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In English sometimes spelled Piedmont; historical duchy in NW Italy, capital <A HREF = "#turin">Turin</A> (in Italian : Torino). Ruled by the Dukes of Savoy; in the 18th century, <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Savoy-Piemont</A>, because of her standing army and because of her control of the Alpine passes, was a sought-after political ally. Most modern of the Italian states (liberal constitution 1848), nucleus of unified Italy. Torino is the center of Italy's car inustry (Fiat). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "pisa"><B>Pisa, Republic of</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Competed with <A HREF = "#genoa">Genoa</A>, <A HREF = "#florence">Florence</A>, <A HREF = "#rvenice">Venice</A> for a share in the Mediterranean trade. 1406-1494, since 1509 to Florence. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Red Biennium </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdibit.html#redbiennium">Fascist Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "redbrigades"><B>Red Brigades</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> in Italian : Brigate Rosse; Italian urban terrorists, est. 1969, most famous act the abduction and murder of <A HREF = "#dci">DCI</A> politician Aldo Moro in 1978. Marxist. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Redshirts</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Giuseppe Garibaldi's volunteers in his campaign to conquer the <A HREF = "#duesicilie">Kingdom of Two Sicilies</A> 1860-1861. He left the port of Genoa with about 1,000 of them. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Revolutions of 1848</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Revolutions in the cities of <A HREF = "#lvenetia">Lombardo-Venetia</A>, <A HREF = "#parma">Parma</A>, <A HREF = "#modena">Modena</A>, the <A HREF = "#papalstate">Papal State</A>. The revolutionaries wanted the unification of Italy, many of them a Republic. No revolution in <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Piemont-Sardinia</A> (liberal constitution granted; government fought the Austrians) and in <A HREF = "#duesicilie">Two Sicilies</A>. Suppressed by Austrian forces in 1849. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "risorgimento"><B>Risorgimento</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Italian term describing the rise of Italian nationalism and the <A HREF = "#itunif">Unification of Italy</A>, from the agitation of Giuseppe Mazzini over the failed revolution of 1848-1849 to the Unification of Italy under the leadership of (Savoy) <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Piemont</A> 1859-1860 (complted 1866, 1870). Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/risorgimento.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "romagna"><B>Romagna</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Territory belonging to the <A HREF = "#papalstate">Papal State</A> (until 1859), located to the south of the Po river, around Bologna and Ferrara. In the 19th century notoriously rebellious; Austro-French occupation 1832-1840; rebellions 1848-1849, 1859. In 1859 a plebiscite voted for annexation by <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Piemont</A> (future Italy). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Rome</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Accordng to legend, founded in 753 B.C., capital of Roman Republic and Empire (until the early 3rd century A.D.); center of Catholic Christianity. Capital of the <A HREF = "#papalstate">Papal State</A>. For many centuries, the main function of Rome was administrative; during the Renaissance, <A HREF = "#florence">Florence</A>, <A HREF = "#rvenice">Venice</A>, <A HREF = "#milan">Milan</A>, <A HREF = "#naples">Naples</A> had a greater population. <A HREF = "#saccodiroma">Sacco di Roma</A> 1527. Annexed by France in 1809 (Napoleon's son granted title "King of Rome"; in 1814 restored to Papal State. Annexed into Italy in 1870; Italian capital. In Italian : Roma </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Sacco di Roma</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Sack of Rome by Imperial troops in 1527. Pope Clement VII. had joined the League of Cognac (1526), an alliance with France directed against Emperor Charles V. An Imperial army took Rome, the soldiers looting the city. Pope Clement VII. would never again dare to provoke the Emperor. Rome traditionally was given lenient treatment by occupying forces; the Sacco di Roma, in this context, broke with tradition. Many of the soldiers were Lutherans. Click <A HREF = "../../military/16cen/saccodiroma.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "rsalo"><B>Salo, Republic of</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In summer 1943, King Umberto II. dismissed prime minister Mussolini; Mussolini was arrested, Italy signed an armistice agreement. German commandos liberated Mussolini, occupied Rome. An Italian Republic was proclaimed, under Mussolini, with seat in Salo. It was a German satellite; the Republic's Jewish population was subjected to internment and genocide. While the Allies made slow progress on the Italian front (Battle of Monte Cassino), <A HREF = "#partisans">Partisans</A> created a lot of problems in the Republic of Salo. The Republic collapsed in April/May 1945. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/italy194345.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "sardinia"><B>Sardinia</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Large island in the western Mediterranean. Frequently conquered; the Sardinians adopted to foreign rule (Omerta). Aragonese (Spanish) 1282-1714; Austrian 1714-1720, then ceded to Dukes of <A HREF = "#savoy">Savoy</A>. Emperor Charles VI., grateful for the service <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Savoy-Piemont</A> had provided as an ally in the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) granted the title <i>King of Sardinia</i> to Duke of Savoy. In Savoyard complex of territories, Sardinia was backward. Gave up her political autonomy in 1848; tourism major source of income. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "savoy"><B>Savoy</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In French : Savoie, historic duchy in SE France, on the border to Switzerland and Italy. Capital Chambery. The Dukes of Savoy acquired Piemont; the political center of their domains was moved across the Alps to <A HREF = "#turin">Turin</A>. <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Savoy-Piemont-Sardinia</A> in 1859 ceded Savoy, the land where her dynasty originated, to France, in exchange for <A HREF = "#lombardy">Lombardy</A>. Savoy had briefly been French during the Napoleonic years (1798-1815). French-speaking, picturesque, alpine. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "savoypiemont"><B>Savoy-Piemont-Sardinia</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Since the 14th century, Savoy and Piemont were united in Dynastic Union. Controlling strategic Alpine passes, in the 15th and 16th centuries it saw foreign armies traverse and occupy the country. Savoy-Piemont established a standing army and, in the 18th century, was a potential ally to the great powers. Gained Kingdom of Sardinia in 1720, <A HREF = "#genoa">Republic of Genoa</A> in 1815. Nucleus of unified Italy. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/piem15591610.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "sicily"><B>Sicily</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Most important island in the Mediterranean. From late 11th century until 1194 ruled by the Normans, 1194-1254 by the Staufer (Emperors), 1254-1282 by the Angevins, 1282-1714 by Aragon (Spain), 1714-1720 by <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Savoy-Piemont</A>, 1720-1735 by Austria; from 1735 to 1860 part of the <A HREF = "#duesicilie">Kingdom of Two Sicilies</A>. 1799, 1806-1815 the Kingdom of Two Sicilies was limited to the island of Sicily, protected by the British fleet. An 1820 revolution on Sicily was suppressed by the Holy Alliance. Since 1860/1861 part of Italy. Capital Palermo; home of the <A HREF = "#mafia">Mafia</A>. Traditionally grain and wine growing country; most urbanized of the Mediterranean islands. Tourism. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "siena"><B>Siena, Republic of</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Historic republic in southern <A HREF = "#tuscany">Tuscany</A>. Annexed by <A HREF = "#florence">Florence</A> (Tuscany) in 1557. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "styrol"><B>South Tyrol</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> in Italian : Alto Adige. German-speaking region on the southern slope of the Alps, capital Bozen (Bolzano). Part of the County of Tyrol (in German : Tirol, in Italian : Tirolo) from the late middle ages until 1918; under Habsburg rule since the 14th century. From 1810 to 1813 briefly part of the Kingdom of Italy. Annexed by Italy in 1919. Granted cultural autonomy. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "swissfed"><B>Swiss Federation</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Established by the Cantons Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden in 1291; grew by other Cantons, most importantly Z&uuml;rich, Basel, Bern and Geneva, joining. The Swis Federation included represented Cantons and subject territories (unrepresented until the time of Napoleon). The Reformation split Switzerland in two rival camps, the Protestant (Calvinist) and the Catholic Camp. Long a recruiting ground for mercenaries; in the 19th century political reforms strengthening the central authorities, industrialization (clocks, chemical-pharmaceutical industry), development of tourism, banking industry. Pursued a policy of neutrality during the last couple of centuries. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xswitzerland.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "turin"><B>Turin</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In Italian : Torino, capital of <A HREF = "#piemont">Piemont</A>. Center of Italy's car industry. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "tuscany"><B>Tuscany</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1569, the <A HREF = "#florence">Duchy of Florence</A> (with he territory of the <A HREF = "#siena">Republic of Siena</A>, <BR> acquired in 1557) as elevated into he Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Ruled <BR> by the Medici Dynasty until 1738; by the House of Habsburg-Lorraine <BR> 1738-1799, Kingdom of Etruria until 1808, then annexed by France; <BR> Grand Duchy restored 1814. Revolution 1848-1849, 1859. Annexed into <BR> <A HREF = "#savoypiemont">Piemont</A> (future Italy). During the Era of Enlightenment, Tuscany was the <BR> most progressive state in Italy (abolition of death penalty 1786). Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xtuscany.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "duesicilie"><B>Two Sicilies, Kingdom of</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Created by uniting the Kingdoms of Sicily and of Naples under a sideline <BR> of the Spanish Bourbon Dynasty in 1735. In Italian <i>Due Sicilie</i>. <BR> Napoleonic Interlude (loss of Naples 1799, 1806-1815). Conquered by <BR> Garibaldi 1860-1861, annexed into Italy. In 19th century Italy, compara- <BR> tively backward; protectionist. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xnaples.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "vatican"><B>Vatican</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Small part of the city of Rome, area around St. Peter's Cathedral. When, in 1870, Italian troops occupied Rome, they stayed out of the Vatican. In the <A HREF = "hditaly.html#concordat">Concordat</A> of 1929, Italy recognized the Vatican as an independent state. Successor of the <A HREF = "hditaly.html#papalstate">Papal State</A>; smallest state in the world. Currency Union with Italy. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xvatican.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "rvenice"><B>Venice, Republic of</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The Lombard conquest of Italy (568) caused many of the inhabitants of the mainland to flee to nearby islands; hence, the Lido of Venice was settled. Venice rose to become the foremost trading city in the Mediterranean, and in the later Midle Ages became a territorial power by acquiring the Terra Ferma (mainland possessions), parts of Istria, Dalmatia, the Ionian Islands, Crete and Cyprus. Declined in the 18th Century; in 1797 partitioned by France, Austria. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xvenice.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "youngitaly"><B>Young Italy</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Giovine Italia, organization founded in 1831 by Giuseppe Mazzini promoting the establishment of a unified Italian Republic. The model for nationalist organizations triving for unification/independence, such as the Young Turks. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> MORE DETAILED ONLINE HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES, BY COUNTRY : <BR> At WHKMLA : <A HREF = "../italy/hditalyper.html">Italy</A>; <A HREF = "../italy/hdswitzerlandper.html">Switzerland</A> <BR><BR> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> M.F. Gilbert, K.R. Nilsson, <B>Historical Dictionary of Modern Italy</B>, Methuen : Scarecrow 1999, 500 pp., KMLA Lib.Sign. <B>R 945.08 G464h</B> <BR> Frank J. Coppa, <B>Dictionary of Modern Italian History</B>, Westport : Greenwood 1985 <B>[G]</B> <BR> Leo Schelbert, Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, Lanham Md.: Scarecrow 2007 <B>[G]</B> <BR> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? 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