ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : Restauration, Early Nationalism </title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2005 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb/tlenat.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/nhb.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on May 5th 2005 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : Restauration, Early Nationalism </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/nhb/hdrest.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Anticlericalism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> A political philosophy of regarding organized church with suspicion; widespread in early 19th century France, <A HREF = "hditaly.html#savoypiemont">Savoy-Piemont</A>, Spain, Portugal. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Barricades</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Revolutionaries, in the early 19th century, took control of their cities and established barricades in preparation to defend the cities against troops sent to crush the revolution. These barricades usually consisted of furniture, wooden carts, barrels etc. As most streets were narrow, they were easily blocked. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Belgian Revolution </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdlctr.html#belgianrev">Low Countries</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "biedermeier"><B>Biedermeier</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> (German), expression describing the attitude of burghers who chose an unpolitical life, enjoying the pleasures of family life, instead of risking their freedom and life striving for a liberal republic and/or a unified country. Biedermeier literature focusses on the beauty of life and is unpolitical. Early 19th century. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Bourgeoisie</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> French expression describing the middle class - non-noble, consisting of entrepreneurs, bankers, shop-owners, bureaucrats, intellectuals. Differentiated into the Grand Bourgeoisie and the Petit Bourgeoisie; wealth and/or education qualified. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "burschenschaft"><B>Burschenschaft</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> German expression for Students' Fraternity. These Burschenschaften supported the concept of a liberal constitution and of German Unification. The first Burschenschaft was founded in 1815 in Jena. Karl Sand, the assassin of August von Kotzebue (1819) was a Burschenschaft member; the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#carlsbaddecr">Carlsbad Decrees</A> were issud to contain the activities of these organizations. Burschenschaft members organized Pan-German students festivals on the Wartburg (1817) and in <A HREF = "hdrest.html#hambach">Hambach</A> (1832). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Carbonari </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hditaly.html#carbonari">Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "carlsbaddecr"><B>Carlsbad Decrees</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Adopted at a meeting of representatives of Prussia, Austria and Russia in Carlsbad (Bohemia) in 1819; conceivd by Metternich. A reaction to the assassination of Russian diplomat August von Kotzebue by German student and <A HREF = "hdrest.html#burschenschaft">Burschenschaft</A> member Karl Sand. The decrees included three points - <A HREF = "hdrest.html#censorship">press censorship</A>, the introduction of a <A HREF = "hdrest.html#secretpolice">secret police</A>, the banning of political organizations (clubs; among them <A HREF = "hdrest.html#gymnasticmov">gymnastic clubs</A>). Also called Carlsbad Resolutions. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Citizen King</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Nickname of Louis Philippe, King of France 1830-1848 (died 1850). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Concert of Europe</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Referring to meetings, common decisions of the European powers following the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#viennacongr">Vienna Congress</A> (follow-up congresses at Aachen 1818, at <A HREF = "hdrest.html#congrtroppau">Troppau</A> 1820, at <A HREF = "hdrest.html#congrlaibach">Laibach</A> 1821, at <A HREF = "hdrest.html#congrverona">Verona</A> 1822. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "congrlaibach"><B>Congress of Laibach</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a meeting of European diplomats held in Laibach, Austria (present Ljubljana, <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#slovenia">Slovenia</A>) in 1821. The Congress accepted Austria's offer to send troops to Sicily and <A HREF = "hditaly.html#savoypiemont">Savoy-Piemont</A>, to suppress revolution and abolish recently adopted constitutions. Great Britain distanced herself from the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#holyalliance">Holy Alliance</A> powers. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "congrtroppau"><B>Congress of Troppau</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a meeting of European diplomats held in Troppau, Austria in 1820. Discussed steps to be taken in case of the liberal constitutons adopted in Sicily and Spain. No decisions were taken. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "congrverona"><B>Congress of Verona</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a meeting of European diplomats held in Verona, Austria in 1822 (then in the <A HREF = "hditaly.html#lvenetia">Kingdom of Lombardo-Venetia</A>; now Italy). Against British protest, authorized France to send her army to Spain in order to suppress Spain's liberal <A HREF = "hdrest.html#constitution">constitution</A>. The last congress of her kind. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Congress Poland </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdeceur.html#congresspol">Poland</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "constitution"><B>Constitution</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> The <A HREF = "hdrest.html#viennacongr">Vienna Congress</A> has promised written constitutions, expected by a Bourgeoisie, not represented at the Congress, which had contributed considerably to the <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#warsofliberation">Wars of Liberation</A>. There were more traditional type constitutions (f.ex. Norway 1814) which foresaw a parliament to meet every three years for a few weeks, with limited competences; modern constitutions foresaw a permanent parliament. Liberal constitutions would contain provisions separating church and state, stress equality in front of the law, guarantee civic rights, freedom of assembly, religion and the press, protect property. The <A HREF = "hdrest.html#holyalliance">Holy Alliance</A> pursued a policy of not accepting such constitutions and using force in order to annul them where they had been adopted. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Decembrists </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under Russia </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> February Revolution </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>First War of Italian Independence</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> 1848-1849; a war that saw <A HREF = "hditaly.html#savoypiemont">Savoy-Piemont-Sardinia</A> support the revolutionaries in Milan in their struggle against Austria. Austrian victory 1849; the aim of Italian Unification/Independence was not achieved. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Frankfurt Parliament </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#paulskirche">Germany</A> (Paulskirche Assembly) </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>German Nationalism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1820, there were 43 German states - 2 great powers (Prussia, Austria), a number of medium size entities (<A HREF = "hdgermany.html#bavaria">Bavaria</A>, <A HREF = "hdgrmany.html#saxony">Saxony</A>, <BR> <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#hannover">Hannover</A>, W&uuml;rttemberg, Baden, Hessen-Kassel, Hessen-Darmstadt etc. etc. French occupation of Germany, Napoleon's treatment of the country had caused the emergence of a passionate German nationalism; German patriots envisioned a unified Germany with a liberal <A HREF = "hdrest.html#constitution">constitution</A>, a country which could defend itself and guarantee justice, as well as career opportunities. The ruling monarchies regarded German patriots as subversives; the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#carlsbaddecr">Carlsbad Decrees</A> were issued to contain them. In an early stage the issue was Nationalism versus Ancien Regime; during the Revolution of 1848 the issue briefly was What kind of Germany (size, constitution). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "gerrev"><B>German Revolution</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In March 1848, revolutionaries took control of most cities in Germany, including Berlin (Prussia) and Vienna (Austria). Representatives for a German Parliament were elected which convened in the Frankfurt <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#paulskirche">Paulskirche</A>. They faced the task of adopting a <A HREF = "hdrest.html#constitution">constitution</A> and facilitating German Unification. Both the Austrian Emperor and the King of Prussia rejected the German throne offered to them. Disputes arose over the question if two territories were to be included in Unified Germany - <A HREF = "hdeceurope.html#posen">Posen</A> and <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#slh">Schleswig</A>. Over the latter issue an international crisis arose; the Prussian Army switched llegiance from the Paulskirche Parliament to the King, and proceeded to fight the revolution. The Parliament was dissolved by force. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Greater German Solution </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany#greatergermansolution">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Greek Rebellion </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdbalkans#greekreb">Balkans</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "gymnasticmov"><B>Gymnastic Movement</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Began in the early 19th century. In Continental Europe, the movement was closely associated with the issue of nationalism; organizations and gatherings of gymnasts in Prussia were forbidden 1819-1842. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "hambach"><B>Hambach Festival</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Meeting of German students held in Hambach Castle (Bavaria) in 1832. Speeches emphasized the solidarity of German nationalists with nationalists in France and Poland. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "holyalliance"><B>Holy Alliance</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> an organisation formed by the powers at the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#viennacongr">Vienna Congress</A>, intended to maintain the status quo, i.e. the political borders as they were, and to prevent revolutions as well as a limitation of absolute rule. Main protagonists of this policy were Russia, Austria, Prussia. Follow-up congresses were held in Aachen 1818, <A HREF = "hdrest.html#congrtroppau">Troppau</A> 1820, <A HREF = "hdrest.html#congrlaibach">Laibach</A> 1821, <A HREF = "hdrest.html#congrverona">Verona</A> 1822; here Holy Alliance policies were adopted. The <A HREF = "hdrest.html#carlsbaddecr">Carlsbad Decrees</A> also expressed Holy Alliance policies. The <A HREF = "hdbalkans.html#greekreb">Greek Rebellion</A> fell outside the area covered by the Holy Alliance; in 1830 the Holy Alliance failed to suppress revolutions in France and Belgium; in 1848 it failed to suppress constitutions in the Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, <A HREF = "hditaly.html#savoypiemont">Savoy-Piemont-Sardinia</A>; to suppress revolutions in France. The Crimean War (1853-1856) saw the end of the Holy Alliance, as Prussia and Austria failed to come to Russia's aid. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Hungarian Revolution </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdceurope.html#hungrev">Central Europe</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> July Monarchy </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> July Revolution </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Liberalism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> a political philosophy which emphasized the legacy of the French Revolution - separation of church and state, a <A HREF = "hdrest.html#constitution">written constitution</A>, equality in front of the law, freedom of religion, assembly, the press, protection of property, freedom of trade (laissez-faire); against regional autonomy, for centralization. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> November Revolution </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Pan-Slavism</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> political vision which, emphasizing the common roots of the Slavic Peoples, promoted the political unification of Slavic peoples. Conceived by Czech Frantisek Palacky, who organized the first Pan-Slavic Congress in Prague 1848. Pan-Slavists hoped for Russia to help the Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes to escape Austrian (resp. Hungarian) rule, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Macedonians to escape Ottoman rule. Both Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were Pan-Slavic creations. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Pan-Scandinavianism </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdscand.html#scandinavianism">Scandinavia</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Paulskirche Parliament </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#paulskirche">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "pentarchy"><B>Pentarchy</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> literally, the rule of five. Term applying to the balance of powers established at the Vienna Congress - 5 great powers : Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, UK. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Polish Partition, Fourth</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> at the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#viennacongr">Vienna Congress</A> 1815 - the bulk of Poland, as <A HREF = "hdeceur.html#congresspol">Congress Poland</A>, given in Dynastic Union to Russia; the Duchy of <A HREF = "hdeceur.html#posen">Posen</A> to Prussia; <A HREF = "hdeceur.html#galicia">Galicia</A> remained with Austria. The <A HREF = "hdeceur.html#cracow">Republic of Cracow</A> was independent (until 1846). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Polish Rebellion of 1830-1831</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> In 1830 a Polish army under Russian officers was ordered to march west, to suppress revolutions in Belgium and France. The Polish troops revolted instead; Russian forces reconquered Poland only in 1831. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "censorship"><B>Press Censorship</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Implemented strictly following the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#carlsbaddecr">Carlsbad Decrees</A>. German newspapers, in the early 19th century, did not discuss German issues, but extensively covered political debates in England and France. Click <A HREF = "../../period/restauration/censorship.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Quadruple Alliance</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> concluded by Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1814 - the winners in the war against France. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Restauration</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> alternative spelling restoration. Policy of attempting to restore the Ancien Regime (absolute rule; privileged nobility; state church) after the troubles of French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. <i>note : here the French spelling of the word is used, as this phenomenon did apply to Continental Europe, but not to Britain.</i> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Revolutions of 1830</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Almost simultaneous revolutions in Paris, Brussels and Poland. In Paris, the July Monarchy was established; Belgium achieved independence from the Netherlands; the Polish rebellion was crushed by Russian foces in 1831. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Revolutions of 1848</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Almost simultaneous revolutions in Paris (February, November), Germany, Italy, Hungary. After a tumultuous year, the latter three were crushed by <A HREF = "hdrest.html#holyalliance">Holy Alliance</A> forces (1849). </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Risorgimento </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hditaly.html#risorgimento">Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Schleswig-Holstein </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hditaly.html#slh">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Second Republic </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under France </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "secretpolice"><B>Secret Police</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> introduced respectively provided wih widened authority by the <A HREF = "hdrest.html#carlsbaddecr">Carlsbad Decrees</A>; spied on potential democrats, patriots and other elements regarded politically suspicious. Click <A HREF = "../../period/restauration/secretpolice.html">here</A> for more information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Smaller German Solution </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#smallergermansolution">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <B>Sonderbund War</B> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> fought in Switzerland in 1847. The Sonderbund, a coalition of Catholic Cantons, was defeated. </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> United Netherlands, Kingdom of </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdlctr.html#unitedneth">Low Countries</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> <A NAME = "viennacongr"><B>Vienna Congress</B></A> </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Held in 1814-1815, discussed and decided upon the new order in Europe following the Napoleonic Wars. Fourth Polish Partition; created United Netherlands, confirmed Sweden's Dynastic Union with Norway, granted Rhineland, Westphalia, N. Saxony to Prussia, left France roughly in her prewar borders. Half-heartedly promised <A HREF = "hdrest.html#constitutions">constitutions</A>; established new balance of powers (<A HREF = "hdrest.html#pentarchy">Pentarchy</A>); <A HREF = "hdrest.html#holyalliance">Holy Alliance</A> Click <A HREF = "../../period/restauration/viennacongr.html">here</A> for moe information </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Young Italy </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hditaly.html#youngitaly">Italy</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width="200" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> Zollverein </font></TD> <TD width="480" valign="top" align="left"> <font size = "2"> see under <A HREF = "hdgermany.html#zollverein">Germany</A> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> </font></TD> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? 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