ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : East Asia </title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2004-2006 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/wh/tleasia.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/whchapters.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/bioeasia.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Biographies </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on June 25th 2004 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : East Asia </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/wh/hdeasia.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "150"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> <A NAME = "anglojapanesealliance">Anglo-Japanese <BR> Alliance</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bakufu">Bakufu</A> <BR> <A NAME = "beijing">Beijing</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "boxerrebellion">Boxer Rebellion</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bushido">Bushido</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "canton">Canton</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "chinesecivilwar">Chinese Civil War</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "chineserevolution">Chinese Revolution</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "chinesescript">Chinese Script</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> Ch'ing Dynasty <BR> Chosen <BR> <A NAME = "choson">Choson</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "coolies">Coolies</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "comfortwomen">Comfort Women</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "culturalrevolution">Cultural Revolution</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "daimyo">Daimyo</A> <BR> <A NAME = "deshima">Deshima</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "dollardiplomacy">Dollar Diplomacy</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "edoperiod">Edo Period</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "forbiddencity">Forbidden City</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "francochinesewar">Franco-Chinese War</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "gangoffour">Gang of Four</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "grandcanal">Grand Canal</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "coprosperitysphere">Greater East-Asian <BR> Co-Prosperity Sphere</A> <BR> <A NAME = "greatleap">Great Leap Forward</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "greatwallofchina">Great Wall of China</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> Guangzhou <BR> <A NAME = "hakka">Hakka</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "handynasty">Han Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "heianperiod">Heian Period</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "hiroshima">Hiroshima</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "hongkong">Hong Kong</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "inequaltreaties">Inequal Treaties</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ironricebowl">Iron Rice Bowl</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "japan">Japan</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "japanesepiracy">Japanese Piracy</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "japanesescript">Japanese Script</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kamakuraperiod">Kamakura Period</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kamikaze">Kamikaze</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "karafuto">Karafuto</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kiautschou">Kiautschou</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "koguryo">Koguryo</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "koreanscript">Korean Script</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "koreanwar">Korean War</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "koryo">Koryo</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kuomintang">Kuomintang</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kurilislands">Kuril Islands</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kyoto">Kyoto</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "littleredbook">Little Red Book</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "longmarch">Long March</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "macau">Macau</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> Manchu Dynasty <BR> <A NAME = "manchukuo">Manchukuo</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "manchuria">Manchuria</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "mandarin">Mandarin</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "meijirestoration">Meiji Restoration</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "mingdynasty">Ming Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "nanjing">Nanjing</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "nanjingmassacre">Nanjing Massacre</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "naraperiod">Nara Period</A> <BR> <A NAME = "nationalistchina">Nationalist China</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "onechildpolicy">One-Child Policy</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "onechinapolicy">One-China Policy</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "onecountrytwosystems">One Country, <BR> Two Systems</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "opendoorpolicy">Open Door Policy</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "opiumwar">Opium War</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "paekche">Paekche</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "pingpongdiplomacy">Ping Pong Diplomacy</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "portarthur">Port Arthur</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "prc">PRC</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "qindynasty">Qin Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "qingdynasty">Qing Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "rangaku">Rangaku</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "redguards">Red Guards</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "roc">ROC</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "russojapanesewar">Russo-Japanese War</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ryukyu">Ryukyu Islands</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sakhalin">Sakhalin</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "samurai">Samurai</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "shanghai">Shanghai</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "shinto">Shinto</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "shogunate">Shogunate</A> <BR> <A NAME = "silkroad">Silk Road</A> <BR> <A NAME = "silla">Silla</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sinojapanesewar">Sino-Japanese Wars</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "specialeconomiczone">Special Economic Zones</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "springandautumnperiod">Spring and Autumn <BR> Period</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "sungdynasty">Sung Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "taipingrebellion">Taiping Rebellion</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tanakamemorial">Tanaka Memorial</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tangdynasty">Tang Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tenno">Tenno</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "tibet">Tibet</A> <BR> <A NAME = "tienanmenmassacre">Tienanmen Massacre</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tokyo">Tokyo</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tsungliyamen">Tsungli Yamen</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "warlords">Warlords</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "warringstates">Warring States</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "yamato">Yamato</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "yasukunishrine">Yasukuni Shrine</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "yenan">Yenan</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "yidynasty">Yi Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "yuandynasty">Yuan Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "zaibatsu">Zaibatsu</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "zhoudynasty">Zhou Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR> </font></TD> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "500"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> signed in 1902 between Britain and Japan. The British, in order to continue their policy of <BR> containing Russia, and in order to avoid a repetition of the situation of 1897-1898 when <BR> they found themselves isolated, chose to ally themselves with Japan, and tacitly condoned <BR> the Japanese claim on Korea. <BR> Japanese expression for Shogunate (794-1185, 1185-1868). <BR> according to older transcription Peking, the Mongols 1267 established their 'grand capital' <BR> there, in Marco Polo's account called Karakorum. City renamed Beijing (northern capital) <BR> 1403. Forbidden city constructed 1406-1420. Capital, seat of Emperors until 1911; capital <BR> of the PRC since 1949. Population 13.8 million. <BR> Chinese movement turning into a rebellion 1898-1900, full name in English translation <BR> <i>Fists of Righteous Harmony</i>. In the beginning demanding the deposition of Qing Dynasty <BR> as well as the expulsion of the foreigners, the first demand was dropped to pressurize the <BR> administration for reform, partially w. success. The Boxers committed acts of violence <BR> against individual foreigners, against Chinese who were dealing with foreigners (among <BR> them. Chinese Christians) and laid siege to diplomatic quarter of Beijing, which held out <BR> for 55 days until relief forces arrived. Most prominent victim of Boxer violence was <BR> German ambassador von Ketteler. The Boxer rebellion was quickly dispersed by an inter- <BR> national force; the Chinese govt. obliged herself to pay heavy war indemnity. <BR> honour code of the Japanese samurai (warriors) which demanded upholding honour and <BR> loyalty to the death; in case an individual failed to do so, he was required to commit <BR> Seppuku (ritual suicide, often called Harakiri). <BR> modern name Guangzhou, city located in the Delta of the Pearl River. Founded as Fanyu in <BR> 214 B.C., renamed Guangzhou in 226 A.D.; the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) made Canton <BR> the only Chinese port foreign merchants were allowed to enter. Canton maintained this <BR> monopolistic status until 1842. Because of Canton's economic importance, the Portuguese <BR> established themselves at Macau, the Dutch on Taiwan, the British on Hong Kong. In <BR> Canton, in 1839, the events took place which sparked Opium War. In 1911 Canton was site <BR> of Chinese Revolution. Major Chinese port; population 6.9 million. <BR> fought between the Kuomintang / Nationalist China and the Communist Party / Communist <BR> China 1926-1949. In the earlier phase, the Nationalist Chinese forces were successful, <BR> forcing Communist forces to retreat from Jiangxi (Kiangsi) to Yenan in 1934. Then turned <BR> into a stalemate; during Sino-Japanese War 1937-1945 fighting between Nationalists and <BR> Communists continued until a truce was signed under Allied pressure. The Japanese <BR> surrendered to Nationalist Chinese forces; fighting resumed in 1946; in 1949 Nationalists <BR> were swept out of mainland China and withdrew to Taiwan, from where the Nationalist ad- <BR> ministration claimed to govern all of China (see ROC). <BR> in Chinese referred to as Xinhai Revolution. In 1911, Emperor Pu Yi was overthrown, Re- <BR> publican administrations set up in Canton/Nanjing and Beijing respectively. Sun Yat Sen, <BR> leader of republican modernization movement in the south, in 1912 left for exile in Japan, <BR> leaving China in the hands of Beijing President Yuan Shi Kai. Only on the occasion of the <BR> latter's death in 1916 did Sun Yat Sen return and continue his policy of reform. <BR> the Chinese script dates back to the 3rd century B.C., when Emperor Shi Huang Di ordered <BR> the script to be standardized. Writing in China began under the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 <BR> B.C.). Chinese characters are used today, outside of China, in Korea and Japan; they have <BR> been used in Vietnam. Number of characters several thousand. <BR> see under Qing Dynasty <BR> name for Korea used during the Japanese administration (1910-1945). <BR> name for Korea 1392-1897, name applied by the Japanese for Korea 1905-1948 (spelling <BR> Chosen; alternative spelling Joseon), name applied to Korea by North Korea since 1948. <BR> Translates to Land of the Morning Calm. 1897-1905 the official name was Taehan, which <BR> is also applied to describe Korea by South Korea since 1948. The Yi Dynasty (1392-1910) <BR> is also referred to as the Choson Dynasty. <BR> in the 19th century an expression for Chinese emigrants who, in Southeast Asia, in U.S., <BR> in Australia, worked for very low pay. In the U.S. and Australia they were both despised <BR> and feared, as a cheap competition. A Yellow Peril campaign resulted in restrictions on <BR> Chinese immigration in the U.S. and Australia. China in 1911 ended recruitment of coolies. <BR> euphemism for young women from China, Korea and other countries who, during period <BR> of Japanese occupation, especially during WW II, were forced to provide sexual services <BR> to Japanese soldiers. <BR> in translated Chinese terminology, Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Mao Zedong, <BR> charismatic leader believed to be retired, called upon the Chinese youth to expel the present <BR> administration out of office, down to the local level. The Chinese youth responded, formed <BR> the Red Guards; many atrocities were committed in the process. The Cultural Revolution <BR> lasted from 1966 to 1969. Traditional cultural institutions, such as Buddhist Temples and <BR> the Confucian Academy were closed down. <BR> expression describing feudal regional rulers in Japan between the 12th and 19th centuries. <BR> also spelled Dejima, artificial island located in port of Nagasaki. Between 1641 and 1853, <BR> the Dutch V.O.C. was permitted to send one ship per year to Japan (all other nations were <BR> excluded from trading with Japan). The V.O.C. kept a crew staying at Deshima throughout <BR> the year; a number of persons who stayed there wrote books about Japan (Caron, Siebold). <BR> When the V.O.C. went bankrupt in 1798 and her assets/rights were taken over by the <BR> Government of the Netherlands, Japanese authorities were not officially informed of these <BR> changes, because it was feared the privilege to send one ship per year might be cancelled. <BR> in the 1960es and 1970es, both Taiwan and South Korea found themselves in a diplomatic <BR> competition with PRC respectively North Korea for international competition. In order to <BR> improve the statistics, heads of state from Third World countries were invited at ROC resp. <BR> South Korean expense, and perhaps further incentives were offered, if they agreed to re- <BR> cognize the paying country (and dropped recognition of the PRC respectively N. Korea). <BR> outside of the Far East, the expression may be used in a different context. <BR> Edo is another name for Tokyo. The Edo Period (1603-1867) is identical with Tokugawa <BR> Shogunate, established by Tokugawa Ieyasu. He restricted foreign trade to the Dutch <BR> V.O.C. in 1641 (see under Deshima) and established isolationist policy lasting until 1853. <BR> constructed in Beijing 1406-1420, during the early Ming Dynasty. Residence of the <BR> Emperor, which he was not allowed to leave and ordinary people were not allowed to enter. <BR> The Qing or Manchu Dynasty continued to use it. Pu Yi, the last emperor, lived there until <BR> 1924. Now a museum. <BR> 1884-1885; after a French victory, China ceded her sovereignty over Annam and Tonkin to <BR> France, which proceded to form French Indochina. <BR> following death of Mao Zedong in 1976 a power struggle followed. Moderate Deng Xiao- <BR> ping branded the radical leaders as the Gang of Four which included Mao's widow Jiang <BR> Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen. In 1981 they were accused <BR> of anti-party-activities and sentenced. <BR> also called Jinghang Canal, 1,794 km long, constructed in 605-611 A.D. at the order of <BR> Sui Dynasty Emperor Yang Guang. <BR> Japanese euphemism for the Japanese Empire they began in 1895 and expanded until <BR> 1945. Was to cover up the economic exploitation that took place. <BR> an attempt to accelerate industrial development of the PRC in 1958, partially in imitation <BR> of Stalin's economic policy (the 5 Year Plans); emphasized the development of heavy <BR> industry (coal mining, steel industry). In the following decades, China's steel production <BR> increased significantly; the Great Leap Forward had disastrous consequences (among <BR> which a major famine). Official statistical production figures often were inflated. The term <BR> is associated with a major failure. <BR> construction was begun under Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi (246-210 B.C.) and has conti- <BR> nued for many years. It was overrun by the Mongols and was restored during the Ming <BR> Dynasty 1368-1644. With the Manchu conquest of China it lost its purpose. Over 6,400 <BR> km in length. <BR> see under Canton <BR> descendants of Han Chinese, who, in times of political insecurity (from Jin to Sung Dyn.) <BR> in their ancestral homeland (northern, central China) migrated to southern China. The <BR> Hakka differ from their neighbours in culture and language, but are regarded as branch of <BR> the Han Chinese. <BR> ruled China 202 B.C.-220 A.D., interrupted by the brief Xin Dynasty 9-23 A.D. Earlier half <BR> of the dynasty called Western Han, later half Eastern Han. During the Han Dynasty, <BR> China expanded into Korea (Lolang of Nangnang Commandery), into Xinjiang, Vietnam. <BR> Confucianism was made state philosophy. <BR> Period in Japanese history lasting from 794 to 1185, named after the capital, Heian (= <BR> Kyoto). <BR> city in western Japan, on August 6th 1945 the U.S. airforce dropped the first nuclear bomb <BR> on the city, of then c.255,000 inhabitants. c.80,000 died immediately, many later. Today <BR> the city is home to the Hiroshima Peace Memorial. <BR> island in the Pearl River Delta; occupied by the British in 1841, ceded by China to Britain <BR> in 1842. At that time inhabited by a few fisherman. In 1860 China ceded further territory on <BR> the Kowloon Peninsula. In 1898 further territory, New Territories, were leased by Britain <BR> from China, for the period of 99 years. In the 19th century Hong Kong served as a coaling <BR> station, wharf and depot for British China traders. In WW II taken by the Japanese without <BR> a fight; following the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War Hong Kong integrated <BR> numerous Chinese refugees. Industrialization began in the 1960es with light industries <BR> (toys, textiles) and was very rapid; Hong Kong became one of the tiger economies. British <BR> rule was terminated in 1997, when Hong Kong became part of the PRC. However, Hong <BR> Kong maintained the capitalist system. Population 6.8 million. <BR> Chinese term for a series of treaties the Chinese Qing administration signed with western <BR> powers, under military pressure, beginning with the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) 1842 <BR> which ended the Opium War, and ending with the Chinese Revolution of 1911. Includes <BR> Treaties of Aigun 1858 and of Peking (Beijing) 1860 with Russia etc. <BR> Communist Chinese idiom referring to the system of guaranteed lifetime employment in <BR> state enterprises. Has been questioned by modern economic reforms in the PRC. <BR> island nation in Northeastern Asia; according to Japanese tradition, Japanese Empire was <BR> founded in the 7th century B.C.; in the 5th/6th centuries A.D., Buddhism and Chinese <BR> Writing System introduced via Korea. In the 16th century, Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, <BR> English merchants arrived; in 1603 Tokugawa Shogunate established, in 1641 isolationist <BR> policy introduced. 1853/1854 forced to open up by Commodore Perry's Expedition; in 1868 <BR> coup which ended Shogunate, began Meiji Restoration. 1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War, <BR> 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War, 1910 annexion of Korea, <BR> since 1937 at war with China, 1941-1945 at war with U.S., Britain. 1945-1952 U.S. occu- <BR> pation, Pacifist constitution. Population 127 million. <BR> for centuries Japanese pirates raided the coasts of China and Korea. The Tokugawa <BR> Shogunate (since 1603) terminated Japanese piracy by forbidding Japanese to sail out <BR> except in fragile fishing vessels; foreign trade was limited to one ship per year from China <BR> (a Dutch vessel) and one from/to Korea. <BR> In Japan the Chinese Writing System was introduced in the 5th/6th century A.D. The <BR> used their own sets of characters, referred to as Hiragana and Katagana, developed soon <BR> after. The Japanese use Hiragana or Katagana in addition to Chinese characters. <BR> period in Japanese history from 1185 to 1333, named after the capital of that period, <BR> Kamakura. In 1192 the Kamakura Shogunate, in the hands of the Minamoto family, <BR> was established; ended in 1333. <BR> Japanese term translating to <i>divine wind</i>. First it was applied for the typhoon <BR> which in 1281 destroyed an invading Mongol fleet. During WW II, the expression was <BR> used for Japanese pilots who flew attacks against Allied targets knowing they did not <BR> have the fuel to return. <BR> or Krafto, Japanese name of Sakhalin. Claimed by Japan 1679-1875, then ceded to <BR> Russia in exchange for Russian recognition of Japanese sovereignty over the Kuril <BR> Islands. In 1905 Japan annexed Southern Sakhalin; in 1945 the USSR retook southern <BR> Sakhalin. <BR> (German spelling; in English sometimes spelled Kiaochow); Chinese name in Eng- <BR> lish transliteration Jiaozhou Bay. 1897-1914 a German protectorate, located in China's <BR> Shandong Province. The Germans developed Qingdao (then called Tsingtau) from a <BR> fishing village into an ocean port Occupied by the Japanese 1914-1922, when it was <BR> returned to China. <BR> or Goguryeo, historical kingdom located in eastern Manchuria and northern Korrea, <BR> from the 1st century A.D. to 668 A.D., when the southern part was conquered by <BR> Silla, while the northern part continued on as the state of Parhae (or Barhae, Balhae, <BR> Bohai), 698-926. <BR> Chinese script had been introduced into the Korean peninsula by the Han Dynasty <BR> conquest of stretches of land in North Korea, and had been spread when Buddhism <BR> was introduced in the 4th century A.D. in Koguryo and Paekche. With Confucianism <BR> introduced as state philosophy in 1392, Korean learning was based on the Confucian <BR> Classics. In 1443/1446, at the order of King Sejong, a simpler alphabet was deve- <BR> loped - Hangul, to be used by women and people without formal education. During the <BR> Yi or Choson Dynasty it was the inofficial writing system, with a marginal role in <BR> society. During the years of Japanese occupation, Korean script (temporarily banned <BR> by the Japanese) was identified with the national cause. <BR> at the Potsdam Conference in August 1945, the Allies decided to divide the Korean <BR> peninsula in two zones of occupation, a Soviet and a U.S. zone - for the mere <BR> purpose of disarming the Japanese forces. The Koreans resented the partition, as <BR> well as the establishment of military administrations in the North and the South. <BR> In 1948 the Soviets suddenly withdrew from North Korea, releasing the country - by <BR> then a People's Republic modelled after the USSR, into independence; the U.S. ad- <BR> ministration, caught by surprise, hastily withdrew from South Korea. In 1950, North <BR> Korea invaded South Korea; the UN security council called on the world to help <BR> South Korea. The Pusan Perimeter was held, and U.N. forces (mainly U.S.) landed <BR> at Inchon in the back of the North Korean front. U.N. forces drove the North Koreans <BR> back to the Chinese border (end 1950), when Chinese Volunteer Forces interfered <BR> pushing the U.N. forces back into South Korea. An armistice was signed in 1953. <BR> Korea remains divided. <BR> Kingdom in Korea, founded in 918, unified Korea under its rule in 936; lasted until <BR> 1392, when a coup d'etat resulted in a change of dynasty (Yi-Dynasty) under the <BR> rule of which the country was referred to as Choson. Alternative spelling Goryeo. <BR> From 1231 on, Koryo suffered Mongol invasions; in 1256 Koryo submitted to <BR> Mongol sovereignty. Koreans were heavily involved in the Mongolian attempts to <BR> invade Japan. see article from <BR> or Guomindang, Nationalist Party, founded in Canton (China) in 1912. Dissolved <BR> in 1913, refounded in 1918; leading figure Sun Yat Sen. Soviet advisor Mikhail <BR> Borodin arrived in 1923, reorganized party (and organized a strong communist wing) <BR> Following the death of Sun Yat Sen, Chiang Kai Shek took over the leadership of <BR> the KMT; in 1927 he broke with the Communists. The KMT became a tool of <BR> Chiang's ambitions. In 1949 the Nationalist administration withdrew from the <BR> Chinese mainland to Taiwan; there it held on to govt. until 2000. <BR> island chain located NE of Japan. Inhabited by Ainus, neglected by Japan until the <BR> island chain was contested by Russia. In 1875 Japan, Russia agreed for Sakhalin <BR> to become Russian, the Kuril Islands to become Japanese. In 1945 the island <BR> chain was occupied and annexed by the USSR. Japan continues to claim the four <BR> southernmost Kuril Islands. <BR> area of Kyoto settled in the 7th century A.D.; under the name of Heian, capital <BR> since 794. later renamed Kyoto. Remained capital until the latter was moved to <BR> Edo (Tokyo) in 1868. <BR> containing Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong, published by the govt. of the <BR> PRC since 1966. Over 1 billion copies printed, translated in many languages. <BR> military retreat of the Chinese Communist forces 1934-1935, from Jiangxi in <BR> southern China to Yenan. 90,000 soldiers set out on a march 8,000 km long; <BR> 20,000 of them arrived in Yenan. <BR> territory consisting of a small peninsula and a few islands in the Pearl River Delta. <BR> in 1557 the Portuguese established a fortification here; the Chinese recognized <BR> Port. sovereignty over Macau in 1670. Administratively long under the Portuguese <BR> Viceroy residing in Goa (Portuguese India). In the 20th century outshadowed by <BR> nearby Hong Kong; Macau's casinos attracted gamblers from Hong Kong. Portugal <BR> offered to hand Macau over to the Chinese in 1974/1975; Macau was handed over <BR> to the PRC in 1999, and declared a special economic zone. <BR> see under Qing Dynasty <BR> Japanese satellite state established in Manchuria in 1931, expanded in 1933 (Yehol) <BR> The Japanese installed Pu Yi, the last Qing Emperor of China, as Emperor of <BR> Manchukuo. In 1945 re-integrated into China. <BR> historical region in Northeast Asia, the traditional homeland of the Manchu. From <BR> here the Manchu, in 1644, conquered China. The settlement of Han Chinese in <BR> Manchuria was prohibited until late into the 19th century, when Manchuria <BR> quickly became Chinese in outlook (with areas with a Korean population majority) <BR> In 1898 Russia established her influence over M., but had to cede southern M. <BR> to Japan in 1905. 1931-1945 Japanese satellite state Manchukuo. Since 1945 <BR> again part of China; now referred to as Northeastern China. Still under military <BR> administration. <BR> expression referring to holders of state offices in Imperial China during the Qing <BR> Dynasty. Successful passing of the Confucian state examination qualified for <BR> appointments; therefore they are also referred to as literati. <BR> refers to the restoration of the Tenno to the rule of Japan, i.e. the abolition of the <BR> Shogunate in 1868. The Tenno remained a largely ceremonial, representative <BR> figure; the Meiji Restoration marked the beginning of the modernization and <BR> democratization of Japan. Meiji translates to <i>enlightened rule</i> and was the <BR> Imperial name chosen by Tenno Mutsuhito, who ruled from 1867 to 1912. <BR> ousted the Yuan Dynasty in 1368; ruled China until 1644, when it was ousted <BR> by the Manchu (Qing) Dynasty. The Ming reformed China by adopting Confucia- <BR> nism as state philosophy (under the Yuan, Buddhism had been favoured), by <BR> allocating the lowest ranks in society to merchants and Buddhist monks; by <BR> implementing an isolationist policy, limiting foreign trade to the port of Canton. <BR> in the 19th century capital of the Taiping rebels, 1928-1937 capital of Nationalist <BR> China. When the Japanese occupied the city in 1937, they committed a mas- <BR> sacre among the inhabitants. 1945-1949 again capital; the PRC then moved <BR> the capital to Beijing. <BR> committed by Japanese forces among the inhabitants of the city, which until <BR> then was the capital of China. The number of victims is estimated at 260,000. <BR> Some Japanese historians describe the event as the 'Nanjing Incident'. <BR> Period in Japanese history during which Nara was the capital (710-784 A.D.). <BR> expression used during the Chinese Civil War (1926-1949) to describe the side <BR> of the Kuomintang administration and army. In the early phase, Nationalist <BR> China controlled the larger part of the country; following the Japanese invasion <BR> the Nationalist administration barely held her ground in the Red Basin; 1945 to <BR> 1948 briefly in control of most of China, the Nationalists in 1949 were ousted <BR> from mainland China and withdrew to Taiwan. The expression has since been <BR> used to describe Taiwan. <BR> from 1949 into the 1970es, the PRC experienced great population growth. At a time <BR> when population growth was discussed as a problem worldwide, Chinese authorities <BR> in the 1970es began to propagate the One-Child Policy; the ideal family was to have <BR> only one child. In urban areas attempts were undertaken to enforce the policy. The <BR> birth rate has decreased. <BR> from 1949 onward the PRC and the ROC each claimed to be the sole govt. representing <BR> China in her entirety. The PRC adopted the One-China policy, i.e. she maintained diplo- <BR> matic relations only with those countries which did not recognize the ROC. When the <BR> U.S. administration entered into diplomatic relations with China following the Ping Pong <BR> diplomacy in the early 70es, the ROC was diplomatically isolated. <BR> a policy of the PRC, suggested by Deng Xiaoping in 1984, when the handover of Hong <BR> Kong (to happen in 1997) was negotiated with the British. Already in 1978, the PRC had <BR> permitted the establishment of Special Economic Zones, Shenzen outside Hong Kong <BR> the first to be opened in 1980. While most of China remains a socialist economy under- <BR> going slow reform, in the Special Economic Zones free market rules applied; Hong Kong <BR> 1997 and Macau 1999 remained, after the handover, free market economies. <BR> following the events of 1895-1898, the Imperialist powers contemplated the partitioning <BR> of China. In 1899 U.S. Secretary of State John Hay suggested an Open Door Policy <BR> being applied to China, i.e. the country remaining undivided, and open to merchants of <BR> all interested nations. While no government formally signed up to this policy, China was <BR> not partitioned and the policy was applied. <BR> expression mainly used for the First Opium War 1839-1842. In the 1830es the British <BR> pushed Opium export to China, until the Chinese govt. confiscated the Opium stocks and <BR> destroyed them. When two British sailors then murdered a Chinese, British authorities <BR> tried and sentenced the murderers, but refused to hand them over to the Chinese autho- <BR> rities, who them expelled the British from China. The British refused to accept this <BR> situation, took Hong Kong as a base, sank the Chinese fleet. They took military positions <BR> around Canton; in the Treaty of Nanking peace was restored; China ceded Hong Kong, <BR> agreed to open further ports (Treaty Ports) and to remove restrictions on the Opium trade. <BR> The Second Opium War was fought in 1856-1860, with Anglo-French forces facing China. <BR> The actions taken against the Boxer Rebels in 1900-1901, in some sources, are referred <BR> to as (the Third) Opium War. <BR> also spelled Baekje, historical kingdom located in SW Korea, founded 18 B.C., conquered <BR> 660 A.D.; had a great impact on early Japan (Yamato). Buddhism, the Chinese Writing <BR> System werre introduced in Paekche in the 4th century A.D., in Japan in the 5th and 6th <BR> centuries A.D. <BR> following the Chinese Civil War in 1949 the PRC was established. The U.S. administration <BR> refused to recognize the PRC and maintained diplomatic relations with the ROC. In 1968 <BR> a rift between the two major Communist powers, the USSR and the PRC, had escalated <BR> into a brief shooting war. In 1971-1972, the U.S. and the PRC entered into negotiations, <BR> which were accompanied with a visit of the Chinese Table Tennis Team to the U.S., vice <BR> versa. The negotiations resulted in the establishment of diplomatic relations, the U.S. <BR> dropping diplomatic recognition of the ROC, the PRC occupying China's seat on the UN <BR> security council (hitherto held by the ROC), the U.S. agreeing to withdraw from Vietnam, <BR> China being granted MFN by the U.S. <BR> following the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Japan forced China to make significant <BR> territorial concessions. Then France, Germany and Russia (the East Asian Triple Alliance) <BR> approached Japan and forced her to give away part of her conquest. The three then Pres- <BR> sured China to lease territory to them; Russia demanded and got Port Arthur in Manchu- <BR> ria (1898). The city today is called Dalian (Darien, Luda). The Russians regarded all of <BR> Manchuria as their sphere of influence and began constructing a railway connecting Port <BR> Arthur with the Transiberian Railway. Before it was completed, Port Arthur was conquered <BR> by the Japanese (Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905). <BR> People's Republic of China, established in 1949 as a socialist one-party state with state- <BR> planned economy. Still a one-party state, with an economy gradually liberalizing. Popula- <BR> tion 1,300,000,000. <BR> or Ch'in Dynasty, China 221-206 B.C., succeeded the Zhou Dynasty, preceded the Han <BR> Dynasty. Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi ordered the burning of the books, the standardization <BR> of the Chinese system of writing, and the construction of the Great Wall of China. <BR> or Manchu Dynasty, 1644-1911. Succeeded the Ming Dynasty, was terminated by the <BR> Chinese Revolution of 1911. Maintained Confucianism as state philosophy and the quasi- <BR> isolationist trade policy of the Ming, channelling all overseas trade through the port of <BR> Canton. In the early 18th Century Qing China extended her sovereignty over Tibet, Mongo- <BR> lia, Xinjiang. Following the Opium War forced to open up Chinese ports; in the 1850es and <BR> 1860es the site of the Taiping Rebellion, since the 1880es attempting cautious reforms. <BR> In Inequal Treaties forced to make concessions, after Franco-Chinese War 1884-1885, <BR> after Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 to cede territory. The Boxer Rebellion of 1900 showed <BR> that China was, under a Qing administration, incapable to address the problems of the <BR> country. Infant Emperor Pu Yi was deposed in the Chinese Revolution of 1911. <BR> between 1641 and 1853, contact with the Dutch V.O.C. traders was the only contact Japan <BR> underheld with the west. Books featured prominently among the items the Japanese <BR> bought from the Dutch. At Nagasaki the Japanese maintained a translating institute, where <BR> the Dutch and French language books were translated into Japanese; these books are <BR> referred to as Rangaku books. <BR> units formed by students or other young folk which followed the call of Mao Zedong, ar- <BR> rested administrative officials during the Cultural Revolution in China 1966-1969. <BR> Republic of China, which since 1949 administrates the Islands of Taiwan, Matsu and <BR> Quemoy, but claims to represent all of China (a claim which temporarily included Mongo- <BR> lia). Since the Kuomintang was replaced as governing party, there are growing forces <BR> which aim at renaming the country Taiwan and declare independence from China. <BR> begun by the Japanese who declared war after the opening of hostilities; fought over Korea <BR> and Manchuria. The Japanese enjoyed the sympathies of the British (who denied the <BR> Russian fleet permission to pass through the Suez Canal); the Russians were hampered <BR> in their efforts because the Transib was not yet completed. In the Treaty of Portsmouth <BR> 1905, Russia ceded Port Arthur and the southern half of Sakhalin to Japan; Korea and <BR> the southern half of Manchuria became Japanese sphere of influence. <BR> in old English language texts also referred to as Lew-Chew Islands; main island Okinawa. <BR> Kingdom, since 1609 tributary to both China and Japan. Annexed by Japan in 1879; po- <BR> pulation assimilated into Japanese. From 1945 to 1972 separated from Japan, under U.S. <BR> military administration; in 1972 returned to Japan. <BR> in Japanese called Karafuto (also spelled Krafto), large island in NE Asia, in 1875 an- <BR> nexed by Russia, which in 1905 ceded the southern half to Japan. During the Russian <BR> Civil War 1917-1926 the Japanese occupied the northern half as well. At the end of WW II, <BR> the USSR occupied and annexed southern Sakhalin, which today is part of Russia. <BR> term to describe the warrior class in pre-industrial Japan. Emerged during the Edo Period. <BR> Bound by Bushido code of honour. <BR> China's largest city, population 16.7 million. A city of minor importance until designated as <BR> one of the Treaty Ports following the Opium War in 1842. An International and a French <BR> Concession territory were established, which were regarded as liing outside of Chinese <BR> territory. Shanghai boomed. The international and French concession attracted refugees <BR> from China herself (fleeing turmoil during the Taiping, Boxer Rebellions, the Revolution of <BR> 1911), from Russia (fleeing Revolution and Civil War), saw the establishment of a Korean <BR> Provisional Government, saw the arrival of Jews leaving Nazi Germany. Occupied by the <BR> Japanese 1937-1945. The concessions were reincorporated into Chinese territory. Since <BR> 1949 part of the PRC. During the first decades of Communist rule, the population figure <BR> of Shanghai was kept constant, her economy stagnated. Reforms which liberalized the <BR> economy of the PRC reinvigorated the development of Shanghai. <BR> Japanese religion, a sophisticated form of animism. Treated as official religion during the <BR> Japanese Empire, when attempts were made to force this cult on Koreans and Taiwa- <BR> nese. Imcludes the worship of the spirit of ancestors at shrines, the most famous being <BR> Yasukuni Shrine. <BR> see under Bakufu <BR> click <A HREF = "hdcasia.html#silkroad">here</A> <BR> historical kingodom in SE Korea, also spelled shilla, 57 B.C.- 660/668, when the armies <BR> of Silla conquered Paekche and much of Koguryo and unified the Korean peninsula. The <BR> years between 668 and 935 in Korean history are referred to as Unified Silla. <BR> First Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 resulted in a Japabese victory; China ceded Taiwan, <BR> renounced her sovereignty over Korea. Second Sino-Japanese War began in 1937 (since <BR> 1941 part of World War II); Nanjing Massacre 1937. <BR> Following the death of Mao Zedong, the PRC entered on policy of economic liberalization <BR> which incluced the establishment of Special Economic Zones where free market forces <BR> would apply. Foreign investors (many from Hong Kong, Taiwan) were invited to operate <BR> factories here, benefitting from low wages etc. The first SEC to ve established was <BR> Shenzen in 1980. The PRC then officially announced her One Country, Two Systems <BR> policy. <BR> Period in Chinese history, between 722 and 481 B.C.; a period in which China was <BR> split in a number of states. The time when Confucius formulated his philosophy and collec- <BR> ted his anthology of Chinese literature. <BR> also spelled Song Dynasty, ruled China 960-1279 A.D., not to be confused with the <BR> earlier Sung Dynasty 420-479 A.D. The Northern Sung (960-1127) reunified China <BR> after a brief period of disunity 970-960 and ruled all of China from their capital Kaifeng. <BR> They lost northern China to the Khitan in 1127; the Southern Sung 1127-1279 ruled <BR> the remainder of China from capital Hangzhou. Southern Sung saw the rise of <BR> Neoconfucianism which was made state philosophy. Between 1234 and 1279 con- <BR> conquered by the Mongols, who established the Yuan Dynasty. <BR> in China 1851-1864. The rebel movement called itself the Heavenly Kingdom of <BR> Perfect Peace; the founder was influenced by christian thought, organized his follo- <BR> wers in a church and implemented a land reform, providing his church members <BR> with farmland; the movement quickly spread and temporarily threatened to topple <BR> the Qing Dynasty. Military defeats resulted in disintegration. <BR> an alleged document of 1927 attributed to Japanese PM Tanaka, in which he was to <BR> have outlined a Japanese plan for expansion (the takeover of East, Southeast Asia <BR> and India), now believed to be a forgery. <BR> ruled China 618-905, followed the brief Sui Dynasty. After 918, China disintegrated, <BR> to be reunited by the Sung Dynasty. Chang'an was capital of Tang China. Buddhism <BR> flourished in Tang China; book printing technique was developed. Tang expanded <BR> into Central Asia; in 751 Tang Chinese troops were defeated by the Arabs. <BR> or Mikado, title of the Japanese Emperor. Japan prides herself in having an uninter- <BR> rupted line of Tennos which is said to have begun in the 7th century B.C. <BR> click <A HREF = "hdcasia.html#tibet">here</A> <BR> in April 1989 students from the University of Beijing camped out on Tienanmen <BR> Square, demanding political reform. The political leadership of the Communist Party <BR> of the PRC was split over how to deal with the issue; the hardliners used tricks to <BR> get around the Party Constitution and engineered a decision to clamp down on the <BR> protesters. As the troops refused, troops from the Vietnamese border were ordered <BR> to cross China and remove the protesters. Martial law was declared May 30th; in <BR> the early days of June, the protesters were removed by force; the number of dead <BR> is estimated at 2,600. Protest leaders were sentenced to long prison terms. <BR> capital of Japan, population 12 million; founded as the city of Edo in 1457, since <BR> 1603 the seat of the Tokugawa Shoguns (Kyoto formally remained capital). In 1868 <BR> Tokyo was declared capital. Suffered earthquake in 1923, air raids in WW II 1944 to <BR> 1945, hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1968. <BR> established during the Second Opium War 1856-1860 as a government department <BR> responsible for dealing with the Western Powers. It introduced a number of reforms, <BR> was nominally in charge of the Chinese Customs System (supervising trade in the <BR> Treaty Ports), hired numerous westerners as employees. Became something of a <BR> Chinese Foreign Office. Most famous head of the Tsungli Yamen was Li Hung <BR> Chang. <BR> regional military rulers who formally recognized a central government but in reality <BR> ruled their territory independently. Following the Chinese Revolution of 1911 and the <BR> death of Yuan Shi Kai in 1916, China fell apart, many warlords factually ruling parts <BR> of it. Chiang Kai Shek, self-styled Generalissimo, in 1926-1928 removed a number <BR> of warlords. <BR> period in Chinese history, lasting from 403 to 221 B.C.; followed the Spring and <BR> Autumn Period, predeced the (brief) Qin Dynasty. <BR> province in SW Japan, on Honshu. Historical region where a federal kingdom was <BR> established in the 6th century; nucleus of the Japanese state. <BR> Shinto Shrine located in Tokyo. Final resting place for numerous Japanese soldiers <BR> who died in battle. Regularly visited by Japanese presidents; these visits cause <BR> protests from governments of countries which suffered under Japanese occupation <BR> during WW II. <BR> or Yan'an, region/city in the Chinese province of Shaanxi in northern China. In 1935 <BR> the Communist Chinese forces, after the Long March, established their headquarters <BR> gere and maintained control of it until the end of WW II. <BR> dynasty ruling Korea 1392-1910. Under them the country was renamed Choson; <BR> introduced Confucianism as state philosophy; confiscated the property of numerous <BR> Buddhist monasteries. Pursued an isolationist policy. The Japanese Invasion of <BR> 1592-1598 was fended off with Chinese aid. Yi Dynasty Korea was a Chinese vassall <BR> which enjoyed far-reaching autonomy. Korea opened up to the west 1878 and follo- <BR> wing, soon was contested over (Sino-Jap. War 1894-1895, Russo-Jap. War 1904- <BR> 1905. Since 1905 a Japanese protectorate; annexed by Japan in 1910. <BR> Proclaimed in 1271, Mongol Dynasty ruling China (until 1368). Buddhism was fa- <BR> voured religion; merchants also were privileged. Conquered China from the Liao <BR> and Sung Dynasties; was succeeded by the Ming Dynasty. Most famous Yuan <BR> ruler Kublai Khan. <BR> Japanese term for business conglomerates such as Mitsubishi. Founded in the years <BR> of the Meiji Restoration, when Japan sought to modernize and industrialize. The <BR> Zaibatsu were engaged in almost every branch of the economy and were instru- <BR> mental in building up the Japanese war machine. <BR> Dynasty ruling China 1122-256 B.C.; in the later two thirds (Spring and Autumn <BR> Period 722-481 and Warring States Period 481-256, the Zhou Emperors lost <BR> authotity and the country disintegrated. <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> Michael Dillon, China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary, Routledge 1998 </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> </DIV><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? 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