ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : High Middle Ages</title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2004 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/wh/tlhma.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/whchapters.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/biohma.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Biographies </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on May 15th 2004 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : High Middle Ages </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/wh/hdhma.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "150"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> <A NAME = "albigensians">Albigensians</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "aragon">Aragon</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> Blackfriars <BR> <A NAME = "canoniclaw">Canonic Law</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "castile">Castile</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> Catharists <BR> <A NAME = "cathedrals">Cathedrals</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "chivalry">Chivalry</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "churchrefmov">Church Reform <BR> Movement</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "cistercians">Cistercian Order</A> <BR><BR><BR> Cluny <BR> <A NAME = "conflictofinvestitures">Conflict of <BR> Investitures</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "cluny">Congregation of <BR> Cluny</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "crusaderstates">Crusader States</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "crusades">Crusades</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "diets">Diets</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "dominicans">Dominican Order</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "dynasticunion">Dynastic Union</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "empire">Empire</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "estonia">Estonia</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "feud">Feud</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "finland">Finland</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "flanders">Flanders</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "franciscans">Franciscan Order</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "gothicstyle">Gothic Style</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "schism1054">Great Schism</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> Greyfriars <BR> <A NAME = "guild">Guild</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "hanseaticleague">Hanseatic League</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "interregnum">Interregnum</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "knightsofstjohn">Knights of St. John</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "knightstemplar">Knights Templar</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "latinempire">Latin Empire</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "leon">Leon</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "livonia">Livonia</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "lombardleague">Lombard League</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "militantorders">Militant Orders</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "navarra">Navarra</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ordeal">Ordeal</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ostsiedlung">Ostsiedlung</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "outremer">Outremer</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "plantagenetdynasty">Plantagenet Dynasty</A> <BR> <A NAME = "princebishops">Princebishops</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "privileges">Privileges</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "prussians">Prussians</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "reconquista">Reconquista</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "romanesquestyle">Romanesque Style</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "stauferdynasty">Staufer Dynasty</A> <BR> <A NAME = "swissfederation">Swiss Federation</A> <BR> <A NAME = "tatars">Tatars</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "teutonicorder">Teutonic Order</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tournament">Tournament</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "treugadei">Treuga Dei</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "universities">Universities</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "urbanrevolution">Urban Revolution</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "venice">Republic of Venice</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "wends">Wends</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> </font></TD> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "500"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> a Gnostic heresy spread in Languedoc in the late 12th century. In 1208, following the <BR> murder of a papal envoy, Pope Innocent II declared the Albigensians (Catharists) <BR> heretics and called for crusades against them. King Philip II. August of France waged <BR> war against the Albigensians (who again were lead by Duke Raymond of Toulouse, <BR> King Peter of Aragon). The Albigensian wars were ended in 1229; in subsequent <BR> decades, papal inquisitors made sure the heresy would be suppressed. see <BR> <A HREF = "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathar">Wikipedia Article</A> <BR> At first, a tiny christian statelet on the southern slopes of the Pyrenees. In 1035, <A HREF = "../../region/spain/aragon.html">Aragon</A> <BR> was elevated a Kingdom, between 1076 and 1134 in Dynastic Union with Navarra. In 1118 <BR> Zaragoza and Taragona annexed; in 1137 Dynastic Union with County of Barcelona. In <BR> 1229 Mallorca gained, in 1238 Valencia. In 1282, Aragon conquered Sicily. <BR> see under Dominican Order <BR> Church Law, dealing with matters such as marriage, the legitimacy of children, <BR> celibacy, the procedure how priests are ordained, bishops elected etc. <BR> In the 10th century a county within the Kingdom of Asturias; in 1035 elevated into separate <BR> kgd., capital Burgos. In 1085, Toledo was conquered; in 1158 the Militant Order of <BR> Calatrava was founded. <A HREF = "../../region/spain/castile.html">Castile</A>, because of her location and devotion to the <BR> Reconquista, gained the largest share of territory during the Reconquista. In 1230, Castile <BR> and Leon entered in a Dynastic Union which turned out to be permanent; Castile was <BR> dominant. In 1236, Cordoba was conquered, in 1248 Sevilla. <BR> see under Albigensians <BR> bishops' or archbishops' churches of large dimensions (ceiling up to 30 m high, usually <BR> cross-shaped. The dominant physical feature in the silhoette of the city. Cathedral <BR> construction began in France in the 12th century; the 13th century saw the climax of Cath. <BR> construction, which spread throughout Catholic Europe. Two major styles, Romanesque <BR> and Gothic (see there). see <A HREF = "http://globegate.utm.edu/french/globegate_mirror/cathed.html">French Cathedrals, Basilicas and Churches</A> from Globe Gate <BR> an honour and etiquette code that was identified with nobility. Nobility was acquired (or <BR> not) by birth; chivalry had to be learned and embraced. A well-educated knight could not <BR> only ride and fight, but he would protect women, children, the church and the infirm, could <BR> sing and dance, was valiant in fight, generous in victory, humble in appearance, serving a <BR> lady (see courtly love) <BR> originated in the monastery of Cluny (France), the movement demanded monasteries/<BR> monks to focus on worshipping, canonic law to be inforced by the clergy, the state not to <BR> interfere in church affairs, the supremacy of the church (papacy) over the state (emperor). <BR> Among their accomplishments were the Treuga Dei (see there), the Conflict of Investitures <BR> (see there). Representatives of the Church Reform promoted the Crusades. <BR> A branch of the Benedictine Order; the Cistercians established monasteries at remote <BR> locations where they cultivated the wilderness and strictly followed St. Benedict's rules. <BR> Begun at Citeaux, after which they are named. <BR> see Congregation of Cluny <BR> In the 10th and 11th centuries, monarchs and nobles mostly were illiterate and, for their <BR> administration, depended heavily on clerics (bishops, abbots) - of whom they also were <BR> sure that thet did not pursue a dynastic policy of their own (nobility was notoriously <BR> scheming). These bishops were rewarded by land grants, which remained with the <BR> respective diocese once the bishop ceased to perform his services (see princebishops). <BR> According to Canonic Law, bishops were elected by cathedral chapters; in reality, <BR> monarchs determined whom the respective cathedral chapter had to elect. Archbishop of <BR> Canterbury Thomas Becket is such a case of a royal appointee being elected. The Church <BR> Reform Movement criticized this practise in the Empire. The Conflict of Investitures lasted <BR> from 1075 to 1122 and ended with the victory of the church. see article from <BR> <A HREF = "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08084c.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia</A> <BR> French monastery, where the Church Reform Movement (see there) began. Cluny was <BR> recognized as the mother church of all those monasteries in France (and of many beyond <BR> France's borders) which implemented those parts of the reform affecting monastic life. <BR> Her wealth permitted the monastery to construct the largest church building the world has <BR> ever seen, where a number of choirs and teams of monks performed service around the <BR> clock. Most of the church building has been torn down during the French Revolution. <BR> see article from <A HREF = "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04073a.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia</A> <BR> states established by crusaders, including the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Duchies of <BR> Antioch, of Tripoli, the County of Edessa, the Latin Empire, the Duchies of Athens, of <BR> Naxos, the Kingdom of Cyprus (in French historiography summarily refered to as <BR> Outremer), the state of the Kinghts of St. John on Rhodes (later Malta), the states of <BR> the Livonian and Teutonic Order <BR> a war, called for by the pope, in which all Catholic christianity was asked to participate in, <BR> against infidels or people dubbed heretics. The first crusade was called for in 1095 to <BR> "liberate" the Holy Land and ended in the conquest of Jerusalem and the massacre of its <BR> inhabitants. Modern historiography usually limits the expression 'crusade' to a series of <BR> enterprises, fought overseas (from European perspective) in the Mediterranean basin; the <BR> last of these was undertaken in 1270. Medieval sources apply the term in a wider definition, <BR> including wars of the Spanish Reconquista, wars in NE Europe against pagan Finns, <BR> Estonians, Livonians, Prussians, and including wars waged against groups dubbed <BR> heretics, such as the Albigensians (see there), the Stedingers, in the 15th century the <BR> Hussites. The Spanish and Portuguese Conquistadores of the 16th and 17th century <BR> regarded themselves as crusaders. <BR> Assemblies of notables have existed earlier, such as the Anglo-Saxon Witenagemot <BR> (7th to 11th century). The transformation of a monarchy resting upon feudal service to <BR> a state based on monetary revenues resulted in the establishment of diets. However, <BR> the traditional view was that with the royal title came disposition over revenues from the <BR> royal domain (land), and ordinary government was to be financed by these. In case of <BR> extraordinary expenses, caused for instance by a war against an invading enemy, the <BR> monarch could apply for a one-time extraordinary tax (bede), which was to be approved <BR> by the diet - since the 14th century divided by status into 3 (sometimes 2 or 4) <BR> estates - clergy, nobility, third estate. The sole purpose of these diets was to discuss <BR> the requested tax; in reality, the diets used the situation to get their privileges <BR> confirmed or expanded. In Spanish : cortes, in German : Reichstag (Imperial diet), <BR> Landtag (territorial diet), in French : Etats Generaux (countrywide), parlement (regional) <BR> in Polish : Sejm etc. <BR> Order of Preachers; in Engl. also refered to as blackfriars; founded in 1216 by <BR> St. Dominic, a Spaniard. Dominican monasteries were founded in cities; in the early <BR> 13th century they quickly spread all over Catholic Europe. One of their tasks was the <BR> inquisition, to discover and combat heresy. <BR> The concept of two or more countries sharing one dynasty, but, in all other aspects, <BR> remaining separate entities. <BR> Within Catholic Europe, since Otto I. in 962 only the East Frankish (Roman) kings <BR> could claim to be crowned Emperor. The East Frankish/Roman Kgd., with Italy <BR> (since 1004) and Burgundy (since 1032/1034) is, in modern historiography, simply <BR> refered to as the Empire - to avoid the confusion that comes with a Roman Empire <BR> that did not include Rome, and a German Empire that included other ethnicities and <BR> did not regard itself German until the 15th century. <BR> pagan and independent until the early 13th century; Danish crusades resulted in the <BR> conquest and conversion of <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xestonia.html">Estonia</A> in 1219; pawned to the Teutonic Order in 1346. <BR> the many preserved examples of codified medieval popular law consist of long lists <BR> of fines to be paid by the party of the offender to the victim or his family in case both <BR> sides agree on avoiding a feud. The offended party was entitled, according to popular <BR> perception, to search their right by waging a feud against the family of the offender. <BR> This right was limited by the Treuga Dei (see there) and later terminated by royal <BR> decrees such as Emperor Maximilian's Ewiger Landfrieden 1495 (eternal peace). <BR> originally a term describing only SW <A HREF = "../../region/scandinavia/xfinland.html">Finland</A> (the Finnish name of the country <BR> is Suomi). Pagan until into the early 13th century; conquered by Swedish crusaders <BR> in the early 13th century, and converted to christianity; remained a Swedish province <BR> until 1809. The country was administrated by a small Swedish minority. <BR> County which, by the partitions of 843/870/880 was allocated to the West Frankish <BR> Kingdom (France); population speaks Flemish (Dutch). The city of Brugge (Bruges) <BR> developed into the most important trading port on the European Atlantic coast; <BR> Flanders developed a strong textile industry, was, in the 14th century, the most <BR> urbanized region north of the Alps. The Flemish textile industry became dependent <BR> on the import of English wool. <BR> founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1211; the Order spread rapidly to cover Catholic <BR> Europe in the early 13th century. Franciscan monasteries were built in cities. <BR> Franciscan monks lived a life of poverty and made their living by begging. Also <BR> referred to as greyfriars. see article from <A HREF = "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06217a.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia</A> <BR> an architectural style, applied in the construction of churches, cathedrals and palaces <BR> in the 11th to 15th century. Originated in France; the nomen "Gothic" is a derogatory <BR> expression coined by Humanists, who regarded the style as crude and (despite <BR> knowing better) attributed it to the Goths (of the Barbarian Peoples' Migration). <BR> Modern historians have suggested to rename it <i>Franco-Norman Style</i>. <BR> In 1054 an emissary of Pope Leo IX., during a mass in the Hagia Sophia in <BR> Constantinople, excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople - who reacted by <BR> excommunicating Pope Leo IX. (who, at that time, already was dead). This event <BR> marks the split of Catholic and Orthodox christianity. The term 'Great Schism' <BR> is also used for the situation between 1378 and 1417, when two lines of popes, <BR> one in Avignon, the other in Rome, competed for recognition. see article from <BR> <A HREF = "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13535a.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia</A> <BR> see under Franciscan Order <BR> craftsmen in medieval cities, by craft, were organized in guilds. The privileges <BR> of the guild protected the member master craftsmen from unwanted competition; <BR> the guild established regulations, quality standards, distributed raw material (such <BR> as leather, for shoemakers). The guild system was maintained until the French <BR> Revolution, although manufactures, since the 16th century, established a <BR> competition and caused the slow decline of the guilds. <BR> An organization of, at first, merchants, since c. 1280 of cities, from Northern <BR> Germany, the Netherlands, Prussia and Livonia. They shared trading privileges <BR> and, from the late 13th century onward, undertook military action to ensure that <BR> trade in the Baltic and North Sea areas was conducted peacefully - on their terms. <BR> L&uumlbeck became the dominant city. The League declined in the 16th century. <BR> literally, Latin for a time in which there was no government. In the history of the <BR> Empire applied to the period between 1254 (end of the Staufer Dynasty) and 1179 <BR> (election of Rudolf von Habsburg). During the Interregnum, formally there were <BR> emperors - Richard of Cornwall and Alfonso of Castile - both of which did not <BR> visit the Empire, and which did not assume rule. <BR> also referred to as Knights Hospitaller, Knights of Rhodes, Maltese Knights. <BR> a Militant Order founded in 1113, chose at its task to defend the (christian) <BR> Hospital in Jerusalem. After the fall of the last crusader outposts in Palestine <BR> in 1291, in 1309 they took, by conquest, the island of Rhodes as a base for their <BR> operations against the Muslims. Rhodes fell to the Turks in 1522; in 1530 the <BR> Knights Hospitaller were given Malta as a new base of operations; their rule <BR> over Malta ended in 1797. see <A HREF = "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller">Wikipedia Article</A> <BR> Militant Order founded by French knights in 1118. Grew quickly; engaged, <BR> outside of waging war on the Muslims, in banking and became very wealthy. <BR> Support base France, the Iberian peninsula, England and Scotland. In 1307 <BR> King Philip IV. ordered the arrest of the Kinghts Templar in France, and the <BR> confiscation of their property, on the charge of heresy. In 1309 their Grand <BR> Master, Jacques de Molay, was tried and burnt as a heretic. see article from <BR> <A HREF = "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14493a.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia</A> <BR> In 1203 Byzantine contender to the throne Alexius Angelus persuaded the 4th <BR> crusade, headed for Egypt (which they never reached) to sail to Constantinople <BR> instead and to take the city on his behalf, which they did. Alexius was not <BR> able to come up with the payment promised to the crusaders; in 1204 they <BR> deposed him and founded the Latin Empire, crowning one of them, Count <BR> Baldwin (Boudewijn, Baudouin) of Flanders Emperor. Insensitive to the <BR> sentiment of the Orthodox population, they superimposed feudalism and <BR> attempted to forcefully introduce Roman Catholicism. This alienated the <BR> populace; in the fringe areas Orthodox principalities (Despotate of Epirus; <BR> Empires of Trebizond, of Nicaea) emerged. In 1261, Emperor of Nicaea <BR> Michael VIII. Palaeologus retook Constantinople, reestablished the <BR> Byzantine Empire. see <A HREF = "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Empire">Wikipedia Article</A> <BR> Kingdom in Reconquista Spain, established by partition of Asturias in 910; <BR> capital Leon. In <A HREF = "../../region/spain/leon.html">Leon</A>, the major pilgrimage site of Santiago de la Compostela <BR> in located. The dominant christian state in Spain until raided by the Moors <BR> in 997. Between 1037 and 1165 and since 1230 in Dynastic Union with <BR> Castile, which became the political center of the state. <BR> the <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xlivonia.html">State of the Livonian Order</A>, conquered by the latter between 1199 and <BR> 1230, consisting of the territory of modern Latvia and the southern regions <BR> of modern Estonia. The Livonian Order was essentially German and <BR> established a society dominated by a German minority (nobility, clergy, <BR> burghers of the cities) dominated a peasantry of Livonians, Curonians, <BR> Estonians reduced to the state of serfdom, a structure lasting into the 19th <BR> century. In 1230 the states of the Livonian and Teutonic Orders merged, <BR> the latter dominating, the former maintaining her autonomy. In 1525 the <BR> Livonian Order regained her independence; in 1558 the Livonian War began, <BR> early in which the Livonian state disintegrated. <BR> Since 1004, Roman Kings / Emperors claimed to be Kings of Italy as well. <BR> They did not reside in Italy, a country more urbanized and less feudalized <BR> than the Empire to the north of the Alps. The cities of Northern Italy were <BR> notoriously suspicious of the Roman Kings / Emperors and repeatedly <BR> rebelled; one such event was the Lombard League of 1167, in which the <BR> cities of N. Italy agreed not to concede to Emperor Frederick I. anything <BR> beyond what previous kings/emperors were entitled to. see article from <BR> <A HREF = "http://75.1911encyclopedia.org/L/LO/LOMBARD_LEAGUE.htm">EB 1911</A> <BR> or military orders, organized similar to monastic orders, i.e. requiring their <BR> members to swear chastity, poverty, total obedience, differing from the <BR> monastic orders in that their main task was fighting the 'infidels'. Among <BR> the militant orders figure the Knights Templar, the Knights of St. John, <BR> the Teutonic Knights, the Livonian Knights, the Knights of Calatrava etc. <BR> see article from <A HREF = "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10304d.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia</A> <BR> medieval kingdom located in Northern Spain, a small stretch in SW <BR> France, capital Pamplona. In 852 created by the merger of the tiny <BR> Kingdoms of (earlier) Navarra and Pamplona; participated in the early <BR> Reconquista. Zenith under Sancho the Great (1004-1035), who also <BR> ruled over Aragon and Castile. Since the conquest of Tudela in 1114 <BR> without border to Muslim Spain, thus without the possibility of further <BR> expansion. The Kings of <A HREF = "../../region/spain/navarra.html">Navarra</A> acquired territory in France and got <BR> more involved in French than in Spanish politics. In 1515 the area to <BR> the south of the Pyrenees was conquered and annexed by Spain; in <BR> 1589 King Henry of Navarra became King of France, establishing a <BR> Dynastic Union in which rest-Navarra was a miniscule junior partner. <BR> Annexed into France during the French Revolution. <BR> a knight had the right to challenge the judgment of a court by risking <BR> his life in a duel with an opponent appointed by the court. The outcome <BR> of this diel was interpreted as God's judgment. <BR> When Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, Mecklenburg, Pomerania converted to <BR> christianity in the 10th/11th centuries, the countries were economically <BR> backward, lacked monasteries (with their advanced economies), cities. <BR> Slavic farmers used wooden plows suitable for fertile soil; the rich, but <BR> heavy soil could only be cultivated with the iron plow as used by German <BR> farmers. Rulers of Slavic countries or Hungary invited settlers from the various <BR> regions of Germany, from Flanders, Holland and Friesland to settle there, <BR> farmers, merchants and craftsmen, miners. These were granted privileges <BR> assuring them the right to appoint their own priests/mayors etc., to live <BR> according to their own traditions, with the effect that entire villages / cities in <BR> Slavic countries continued to speak German for centuries to come. Some areas <BR> in Eastern Central Europe (Thuringia, Saxony, Brandenburg, Prussia, Livonia <BR> with Courland) became German by conquest, the conquerors calling in German <BR> etc. settlers. In German, this complex process, which occurred from c.1150 to <BR> c.1350, is referred to as the <i>Ostsiedlung</i> (colonization of the east). <BR> French for overseas; expression for the crusader states in Greece and the Levant, <BR> most of which were ruled/controlled by French nobility. <BR> ruling England between 1216 and 1485 <BR> in exchange for their service to kings (bishops, as chancellors, took charge of the <BR> royal administration in the 10th to 12th centuries) had been granted land titles. <BR> So bishops, in the Empire, became political functionaries in addition to their <BR> spiritual tasks. After the Conflict of Investitures, they held on to the lands, but no <BR> longer took part in royal administration, and over time became autonomous princes. <BR> laws for special individuals, families, guilds, for the nobility or clergy of an area, <BR> for a certain city, granted by a monarch, the pope e.a. <BR> inhabitants of Prussia east of the Vistula. Until c.1230 the Prussians were pagans; <BR> they spoke a Baltic language, related to Lithuanian. In 1230 the Teutonic Order <BR> was called in by Duke Conrad of Mazovia; the Order conquered the Prussians in <BR> a series of annual crusades. <BR> in 711 the Arab conquest of Visigothic Spain began. By 718, only Asturias and <BR> Todmir still resisted. From Asturias, the reconquest (Reconquista) began, lasting <BR> until 1492. The most significant progress was made between the late 11th century <BR> (legendary hero El Cid) and the mid 13th century (conquest of Sevilla 1248). <BR> architectural style, to be observed in churches and cathedrals (12th-15th century), <BR> recognizable by round arches. The label 'Romanesque' was given to this style by <BR> Renaissance Humanists. <BR> Norman knights arrived in southern Italy in 1027, hired as mercenaries. In 1042 one of <BR> them became count of Apulia. Under Robert Guiscard the Normans extended their rule <BR> over much of southern Italy; from 1061 to 1088, Sicily was conquered from the Arabs. <BR> Naples was acquired in 1130. The Norman territories in southern Italy were merged to <BR> form the Norman Kingdom of Sicily (1130). During the Conflict of Investitures, the popes <BR> relied on Norman-Sicilian protection in order to balance the power of the Empire. In <BR> 1194, Roman King Henry VI. married Constance, daughter of deceased King William III. <BR> of Sicily - and had her relatives executed; Sicily then was united with the Empire in <BR> Dynastic Union. The Kingdom of Sicily was neglected by the Staufer Dynasty (she left <BR> her mark, as Emperor Frederick II., the Great, grew up in Sicily). In 1265 Charles of <BR> Anjou acquired the Kingdom of Sicily; in 1282 the island was taken by the House of <BR> Aragon, while the mainland part, now the Kingdom of Naples, remained Angevin. <BR> dynasty of Dukes of Swabia, from 1138 to 1254 dynasty of Roman Kings/Emperors <BR> founded in 1291 by the Cantons of Uri, Nidwalden (Unterwalden) and Schwyz. <BR> in 1240 the Kipchak Tatars, a Turkic people under the command of the Mongol <BR> Khans, conquered Kiev; in 1241 they defeated a German-Polish army in the <BR> Battle of Legnica/Liegnitz. The Khanate of the Golden Horde, established in the <BR> break-up of the Mongol Khanate at the end of the 13th century, was a Khanate of <BR> the Kipchak Tatars. In the 15th century it broke up into the Khanates of Kazan, <BR> Astrakhan and Crimea. <BR> militant order of German knights, founded in Palestine in 1190; in 1230 the T.O. <BR> was called in by Duke Conrad of Mazovia to fight the pagan Prussians; they <BR> conquered Prussia and established a state regarded a model in efficiency in their <BR> time; their main castle, the Marienburg, was never conquered in history. <BR> noble form of entertainment, held on the occasion of royal weddings etc.; a <BR> tournament provided the opportunity for young noblemen to prove their valour and <BR> earn knighthood. Tournaments were costly to stage and therefore rare. <BR> Truce of God. The treaties aiming at introducing it extended the Sunday's peace <BR> from Saturday sundown to Wednesday. A violation of Sunday's peace was <BR> punishable by double fines. An attempt to reduce feuds which seem, around the <BR> year 1000, to have been a major problem. <BR> Universities appear in the records c. 1200; Catholic Europe then had three of <BR> them - Bologna, Paris, Oxford. Soon further universities were founded, among <BR> them Naples in 1235. At universities, 4 subjects could be studied - Theology, <BR> Law, Medicine and Philosophy. The language of instruction was Latin. Before <BR> 1200, monastery schools and cathedral schools were the leading institutions <BR> of higher education. The emergence of univ. is a consequence of the Church <BR> Reform Movement <BR> Until 1100, in Europe north of the Loire and the Alps, cities were economically <BR> insignificant, their main raison d'etre being the residence of a bishop. The <BR> Church Reform Movement resulted in monasteries giving up their sophisticated <BR> economic operations. Groups of lay brethren, specialized craftsmen, now moved <BR> into cities, where they produced for the market and formed guilds. Market <BR> places in cities became the centers of a new economy, in which money became <BR> a universally accepted currency. In the 11th to 14th centuries, cities grew, many <BR> new cities were founded. <BR> When northern Italy was conquered by the Lombards in 568, a part of the Roman <BR> population fled to islands in the Lagoon, settling down and establishing the city of <BR> Venice. Their safety was dependent on the control of the sea; Venice became a <BR> thalassocracy by necessity, a Byzantinian outpost in the extreme far north of the <BR> Adriatic. c.800, Byzantinian influence dwindled and over time, Venice became an <BR> independent republic, engaged in trade with Byzantium and the Arab Levant. The <BR> Crusades provided Venice with an opportunity to grow rich, as it often were <BR> Venetian ships which transported the crusaders over. Venice acquired territorial <BR> cessions from Byzantium, and during the 4th Crusade 1202-1204 gained further <BR> Byzantinian territories (in Dalmatia, Greek islands), laying the ground for a <BR> Venetian Empire. The crusades stimulated European-Levantine trade, in which <BR> Venice played a leading role. Venice was ruled by a senate, headed by a doge. <BR> name for the Slavic peoples inhabiting the lands between Elbe and Oder Rivers, <BR> among them the Obodrites, Luticians, Sorbs. During the 10th and 11th centuries, <BR> they held on to their pagan beliefs. Occasional Wend raids into christian (German, <BR> Polish) territory were responded to by German, Polish attempts to conquer the region; <BR> in 968 the city of Magdeburg was elevated seat of an archdiocesis with the task to <BR> organize the mission of these Slavic peoples. However, in a rebellion they restored <BR> their independence; while Upper Saxony was conquered and converted in the early <BR> 11th century, Brandenburg only in the 12th century. The tribal territories of the <BR> north (Mecklenburg, Hither Pomerania) were reorganized as principalities under <BR> Slavic rulers. They called in German colonists in order to economically develop <BR> their territories; over time, the local Slavic population, reduced to the status of serfs, <BR> was assimilated into German culture. Only in Lusatia did Slavic language survive <BR> until today. <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> </DIV><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? "/" + file : file; referer = (document.referrer) ? document.referrer : ""; document.write("<script type=\"text/javascript\" "); document.write("src=\"" + path_to_counterfile + "?chCounter_mode=js&status=" + cstatus + "&visible=" + visible); document.write("&seite=" + file + "&referer=" + referer + "&res_width=" + screen.width + "&res_height=" + screen.height + "\"></" + "script>"); //--> </script> <!-- End of CH Counter --> <BR> </body> </html>