ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : Near East</title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2004-2005 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/wh/tlneareast.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/whchapters.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/bioneareast.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Biographies </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on July 16th 2004 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : Near East </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/wh/hdneareast.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "150"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> <A NAME = "abbasiddyn">Abbasid Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "aden">Aden</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "alawites">Alawites</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "alexandrette">Alexandrette</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "anglorussianentente">Anglo-Russian <BR> Entente</A> <BR> <A NAME = "prantioch">Antioch, <BR> Principality of</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "arabrevolt">Arab Revolt</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "armeniangenocide">Armenian Genocide</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "asir">Asir</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "assassins">Assassins</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ayyubiddyn">Ayyubid Dynasty</A> <BR> <A NAME = "baathparty">Baath Party</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "baghdad">Baghdad</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "baghdadrailroad">Baghdad Railroad</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bahrain">Bahrain</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "balfourdeclaration">Balfour Declaration</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "blackseptember">Black September</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "buyiddyn">Buyid Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "crusades">Crusades</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "cyprus">Cyprus</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "damascus">Damascus</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "deiryasin">Deir Yasin</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "edessa">Edessa, County of</A> <BR> <A NAME = "gazastrip">Gaza Strip</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "golanheights">Golan Heights</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "gcc">Gulf Cooperation <BR> Council</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "gulfwars">Gulf Wars</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "hadhramaut">Hadhramaut</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "halabja">Halabja</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "hashemitedyn">Hashemite Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "hatay">Hatay</A> <BR> <A NAME = "hejaz">Hejaz</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "hejazrailroad">Hejaz Railroad</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "husaynmacmahon">Husayn-MacMahon <BR> Correspondence</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "intifada">Intifada</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "iran">Iran</A> <BR> <A NAME = "iraq">Iraq</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "israel">Israel</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "janissary">Janissaries</A> <BR> <A NAME = "jerusalem">Jerusalem</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kgdjerusalem">Jerusalem, <BR> Kingdom of</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "jordan">Jordan</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kibbutz">Kibbutz</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kurds">Kurds</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "treatyoflausanne">Lausanne, <BR> Treaty of</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "lebanesecivilwar">Lebanese Civil War</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "lebanon">Lebanon</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "lesserarmenia">Lesser Armenia</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "maronitechristians">Maronite Christians</A> <BR> <A NAME = "marsharabs">Marsh Arabs</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "mosul">Mosul</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "najd">Najd</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "northernyemen">Northern Yemen</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "oilcrisis">Oil Crisis</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "oman">Oman</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "opec">OPEC</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "ottomanempire">Ottoman Empire</A> <BR> <A NAME = "palestine">Palestine</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "palestinians">Palestinians</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "persia">Persia</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "persianrevolution">Persian Revolution</A> <BR> <A NAME = "plo">PLO</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "qatar">Qatar</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sabrashatila">Sabra and Shatila</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "safaviddyn">Safavid Dynasty</A> <BR> <A NAME = "sassaniddyn">Sassanid Dynasty</A><BR> <A NAME = "saudiarabia">Saudi Arabia</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "seljuks">Seljuks</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "treatyofsevres">Sevres, Treaty of</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sixdayswar">Six Days War</A> <BR> <A NAME = "southernyemen">Southern Yemen</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sykespicot">Sykes-Picot Agreement</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "syria">Syria</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tanzimat">Tanzimat Reforms</A><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "telaviv">Tel Aviv</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "transjordan">Transjordan</A> <BR> <A NAME = "tripoli">Tripoli, County of</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "trucialcoast">Trucial Coast</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "turkey">Turkey</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "uae">U.A.E.</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "umayyaddyn">Umayyad Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "westbank">West Bank</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "yazidi">Yazidi</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "yemen">Yemen</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "yomkippurwar">Yom Kippur War</A> <BR> <A NAME = "youngturks">Young Turk Rebellion</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "zionism">Zionism</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> </font></TD> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "500"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> ousted the Umayyad Dynasty in 750, established her capital at Baghdad, lasted <BR> till 1258. Since the late 9th century only nominally in charge; provincial governors <BR> ruled rather independently. <BR> port city in Yemen on the shore of the Indian Ocean. From here shipping through <BR> the Bab el Mandeb can be controlled. The Portuguese failed to take the city in the <BR> early 16th century; taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1538. The British E.I.C. occupied <BR> Aden in 1839. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 increased the signficance <BR> of Aden. The British withdrew 1967, when Southern Yemen became independent. <BR> Islamic sect which is a separate branch of the Shi'ite community; they believe in <BR> the first 11 Imams. Emerged in the 9th century in Syria; ostracized and even perse- <BR> cuted (under Mamluk, Ottoman rule), Alawite communities have survived in the <BR> mountain regions of northern coastal Syria. Under French colonial administration, <BR> their area was separated from Syria (Lattaquie, Territoire des Alaouites). <BR> city founded by Alexander the Great (here French spelling), in Turkish Iskenderun. <BR> Part of the Mandate over Syria the League of Nations bestowed upon France in <BR> 1922, the French administratively separated the coastal regions of Lebanon and <BR> Lattaquie (Territoire des Alaouites, see under Alawites) from Syria. In 1938 the <BR> French separated the Alexandrette region from Alawite Territory and ceded it to <BR> Turkey. In Turkish, the territory is referred to as Hatay. The region has a strong <BR> Arab population element. <BR> click <A HREF = "hdcasia.html#anglorussianentente">here</A> <BR><BR> Crusader State in Syria, 1098-1268, established by Norman nobles. Became a <BR> vassall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1119. Frequently at war with Aleppo and <BR> with the Byzantine Empire; during the Second Crusade under siege. In the 13th <BR> century, the Principality of Antioch in essence was a vassall of the Kingdom of <BR> Lesser Armenia. Fell in 1268 to Mamluk Sultan Baibars. <BR> Revolt of the Arabs of Hejaz against Ottoman rule during WW I. The British, seeing <BR> the rebels as potential allies, made them promises (Husayn-MacMahon Corres- <BR> pondence). The Arabs, under T.E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia") formed a <BR> mobile strike force, took Aqaba, were supplied by the British, interrupted Turkish <BR> communications, liberated Damascus, Beyrut. However, the British had promised <BR> Syria and Lebanon to the French (Sykes-Picot Agreement); the Hashemite Dyn. <BR> was ousted from Beyrut, Damascus. The Hashemites were established by the <BR> British as kings in Transjordan, Iraq. <BR> During WW I, the Ottoman Empire faced Russia as an enemy. The Armenians, <BR> because of their christian religion, were suspected of being potential collaborators <BR> with the Russians; the Ottoman administration ordered the deportation of 1.8 million <BR> Armenians; the number of those starving to death on the march, in addition to <BR> those killed, is estimated at 1.7 million (in 1890, 2.5 million Armenians were counted <BR> in the Ottoman Empire). <BR> southern region of the Hejaz; the Upper Asir region was practically independent <BR> since 1914; she did not recognize the sovereignty of the Sherif of Mecca, and was <BR> placed under the protection of Ibn Saud in 1920, annexed by Ibn Saud in 1923. <BR> in Arab Hashshashin (Hashish-eaters), an Islamic sect first recorded in the 8th <BR> century. In 1090 they gained control of the mountain fortress of Alamut in Persia, <BR> which was believed impregnable. A similar assassin fortress in the Lebanon <BR> featured in the history of the crusades. The "Old Man of the Mountain" (leader of <BR> the sect, commander of the fortress) drugged young men, had them wake up in <BR> a simulated paradise, drugged them again, told them they had been in paradise, <BR> and if they would die in the cause (while assassinating a prominent person the <BR> name of whom they were given) theyb directly would return to paradise. Black <BR> lits of potential victims were published; those who found their names on it, could <BR> have their nams removed by paying a certain sum. The mountain fortress of <BR> Alamut was razed in 1256 by Hulagu Khan. The word assassin made its way into <BR> the English language. <BR> click <A HREF = "hdnafrica.html#ayyubiddyn">here</A> <BR> political party, founed in Syria by Michel Aflak and others in 1940. The party <BR> promotes separation of religion and state and is influenced by socialism. In <BR> government in Syria; another branch, founded in Iraq, dominated Iraqi policy 1963- <BR> 2003. The party organization failed to prevent strongmen within the party estab- <BR> lishing themselves as dictators (Saddam Hussein in Iraq, Hafez al Assad in Syria; <BR> the latter was succeeded by his son Bashar in 2000. <BR> city in Iraq, founded in 762 as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Quickly became <BR> a metropolis. Sacked in 1258 by the Mongols, when 800,000 of its inhabitants were <BR> massacred; sacked again in 1401 by Tamerlane. Since 1508 under Safavid, since <BR> 1534 under Ottoman rule. Occupied by the British in 1917, capital of Iraq since <BR> 1921. <BR> project undertaken/discussed in the late 19th and early 20th century, when <BR> Baghdad still belonged to the Ottoman Empire. Financed by German capital, the <BR> British government regarded the railroad threatening British India. The Anatolian <BR> section was completed by 1896; construction then was interrupted, resumed <BR> only in 1911. By the time the British conquered Iraq, the line was not yet com- <BR> pleted; this feat has later been accomplished by the governments of Iraq and <BR> Syria. <BR> island nation located in the Persian/Arab Gulf. In 1861, the Shaykh of Bahrain- <BR> Qatar accepted a British protectorate; Qatar soon was occupied by Ottoman <BR> forces. Independent since 1961. Following the Oil Crisis of 1973 and the outbreak <BR> of the Lebanese Civil War, Bahrain developed into the leading banking center of <BR> the Middle East. Founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council. <BR> On Nov. 2nd 1917, in a letter addressed to Lord Rothschild, British Foreign <BR> Secretary Arthur James Balfour declared the intention of the British Govt. to <BR> establish a Jewish Homeland in Palestine. <BR> In September 1970 the Jordan authorties clamped down on Palestinian organi- <BR> zations, and caused a partial exodus of Palestinian refugees from the country. <BR> A Palestinian organization named after the event later undertook a number of <BR> spectacular terrorist acts, among them taking the Israeli team participating in <BR> the Munich Summer Olympics 1972 hostage, and killing them when an attempt <BR> was made to free the hostages. <BR> dynasty of Iranian origin, nominally subordinate to the Abbasi Caliphs in Baghdad <BR> 945-1055, ruled Iraq, eastern Syria, easternmost Anatolia, western and south- <BR> eastern Iran. <BR> series of joint military campaigns of Catholic Europe against the Muslim World, <BR> ostensibly with the object to liberate the Holy Land. First crusade 1096-1099 <BR> succeeded, established Crusader States (Principality of Antioch, Counties of <BR> Edessa, Tripoli, Kingdom of Jerusalem). Second Crusade 1147-1149 to aid <BR> beleaguered Antioch; Third Crusade 1190-1192 to Palestine, Fourth Crusade <BR> 1202-1204 took Constantinople, established Latin Empire; Fifth Crusade 1218- <BR> 1222 attacked Egypt; from no.6 onward counting disputed as the crusade under- <BR> taken by Emperor Frederick II. is not counted by some, as he was excommuni- <BR> cated by the pope. He, however, succeeded in briefly regaining Jerusalem. <BR> It has to be noted that, from the 13th century on, most wars against pagans or <BR> heretics were labelled crusades. <BR> island in the eastern Mediterranean; Roman, then Byzantinian, 688-965 a <BR> Byzantinian-Arab condominum, 965-1191 Byzantinian, 1192-1489 Crusader <BR> Kingdom under the Lusignan Dynasty, 1489-1571 Venetian, 1571-1878 (1914) <BR> Ottoman, 1878-1960 British, independent since 1960. Population 80 % Greek <BR> Christians, 20 % Turkish Muslims; following a 1974 coup d'etat by Greek <BR> nationalists demnding Enosis (unification with Greece), the Turkish Army in- <BR> vaded; the island was partitioned in a Greek and a Turkish part. <BR> ancient city in Syria, conquered by Islam in 636, capital of the Umayyad <BR> Caliphate 661-750. Under Abbasid, Fatimid, Seljuk, Burid, Zengid, Ayyubid, <BR> Mamluk rule, destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, Mamluk until 1516 when conquered <BR> by the Ottomans. Taken by the Arab Revolt in 1918 who were expelled by the <BR> French in 1920. The French made Damascus capital of Syria. <BR> Arab village in Palestine 3 km west of Jerusalem. On April 9th 1948, during the <BR> First Arab-Israeli War, Irgun and Stern Gang units entered the vlllage and <BR> opened fire at the population; 240 were killed (out of a total population of less <BR> than 1,000); the remainder fled Palestine. <BR> Crusader state in Syria 1099-1144. <BR> The United Nations in 1947 voted for the plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish <BR> and an Arab state. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and the governments of <BR> neighbouring Egypt, Syria and Jordan refused to accept partition; the first Arab- <BR> Israeli War was fought (1948). Israel annexed part of the land assigned to the <BR> Arab state in Palestine; the West Bank and the Gaza Strip remained. The Gaza <BR> strip was administrated by Egypt 1949-1967, occupied by Israeli forces in 1967 <BR> (Six Days War). <BR> the Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) and subsequent Anglo-French agreements <BR> allocated the Golan Heights to French Syria. Occupied by Israeli forces in the Six <BR> Days War (1967), held evr since. The Golan Heights have a considerable Druze <BR> population element. <BR> (referring to the Persian/Arab Gulf). Established in 1981, members Saudi Arabia, <BR> Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the UAE and Oman, pursued political as well as economic <BR> objectives (stability). <BR> First Gulf War fought between Iraq and Iran 1980-1988 (caused by Iraqi invasion <BR> of Iran, Saddam Hussein hoping to take advantage of turmoil in Iran (Islamic Revolu- <BR> tion). Second Gulf War 1990-1991 over Kuwait, occupied by Iraq in 1990, liberated <BR> by US-lead int'l alliance in 1991. Third Gulf War 2003, US-lead "Coalition of the <BR> Willing", in search of weapons of mass destruction, invaded Iraq and deposed <BR> dictator Saddam Hussein. In US terminology, diffent counting (First Gulf War 1990- <BR> 1991, Second Gulf War 2003). <BR> geographical region in southern Arabia, part of Yemen. In the 19th and early 20th <BR> century hinterland of the British colony of Aden, consisting of a number of <BR> shaykhdoms resisting British authority, and later on central Southern Yemeni <BR> authority. <BR> village in Iraqi Kurdistan. In March 1988, during the First Gulf War, the town suffered <BR> a poison gas attack, delivered by bombs, by Iraqi forces. 12,000 dead. <BR> the Hashemites were hereditary Emirs (Sherifs) of Mecca; in 1916, Husayn <BR> assumed the title King of Hejaz. The Hashemites lost Hejaz in 1924, when the <BR> country was conquered by Ibn Saud. Hashemites were enthroned as Kings of <BR> Iraq (1921) and Transjordan (1922) by the British; in Iraq the monarchy was <BR> toppled in 1958. In Jordan, the Hashemite Dynasty still rules. <BR> see under Alexandrette <BR> land in western Arabia, on the shore of the Red Sea, including the cities of Mecca <BR> and Yathrib (Medina). Here Islam originated. Under Ottoman rule 1517-1918; here <BR> during WW I the Arab Revolt broke out; Husayn, Sherif of Mecca, proclaimed <BR> himself King of Hejaz in 1916. The Turks held on to Medina, connected with Istanbul <BR> by the Hejaz Railroad, until 1918. In 1924 the Hejaz was conquered by Ibn Saud, <BR> in 1932 formally merged with Najd to form Saudi Arabia. <BR> connecting Damascus with Medina, constructed in 1900-1908, main communica- <BR> tion line of the Ottoman Empire in Arabia. <BR> correspondence between the British High Commissioner in Cairo, Sir Henry Mac <BR> Mahon, and Sherif Husayn of Mecca, which resulted in the British recognition of <BR> Sherif Husayn as King of the Hejaz, and in which promises regarding the post-<BR> war treatment of Arabia were made. Began in 1915. <BR> Arab form of expressing disatisfaction with political conditions; combination of a <BR> general strike, the closure of shops, and demonstrations where slogans are <BR> shouted and stones are thrown; the latter can turn into riots. First Intifada against the <BR> British administration of Palestine 1935-1938; further Intifadas in the Israeli-occupied <BR> West Bank and Gaza . <BR> click <A HREF = "hdcasia.html#iran">here</A> <BR> until into the 20th century merely a geographical expression. As a political entity, <BR> Iraq was created by the British colonial administration, following WW I, by merging <BR> the Ottoman provinces of Basra, Baghdad and Mosul. In 1921 the British declared <BR> Iraq a monarchy under King Faisal ibn Husayn, a Hashemite. Iraq was granted <BR> full independence, but the British remained influential. With anti-British political <BR> groups threatening to take power in 1941, the British reoccupied Iraq. Independence <BR> was restored at the end of WW II. A 1958 coup ended the monarchy; another 1963 <BR> coup brought the Baath Party to power. In 1979 Saddam Hussein became president. <BR> He started two wars, against Iran in 1980 (-1988, First Gulf War) and against Kuwait <BR> 1990 (-1991, Second Gulf War) after which Iraq was diplomatically isolated and the <BR> Kurds of Nothern Iraq administrated their own affairs, protected by a No-Fly-Zone <BR> and was ousted in the Third Gulf War 2003. <BR> the idea of creating a Jewish state was postulated by Theodor Herzl in his 1896 <BR> book "Der Judenstaat". The Zionist movement son fixed her view on Palestine, then <BR> under Ottoman rule; immigration of European Jews into Palestine had begun in <BR> 1882. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 promised a Jewish Homeland in Palestine. <BR> In 1947, Britain declared her intention to withdraw from Palestine, and in accordance <BR> with wishes of Zionist organizations, the UN general assembly decided Palestine <BR> to be partitioned in a Jewish state named Israel and an Arab state. The territorial <BR> borders of Israel were altered after the Arab-Israeli War of 1948. In 1967, Israel has <BR> occupied the West Bank, Gaza, the Golan Heights and the Sinai. Subsequently, <BR> many Jewish settlements have been established in these occupied areas; Israel <BR> has returned the Sinai to Egypt. Syria claims the Golan Heights; the PLO regards <BR> the West Bank and Gaza as the territory for a future Palestinian State. <BR> click <A HREF = "hdeeurope.html#Janissary">here</A> <BR> Hebrew name Zion, Arab name al Quds. Roman, then Byzantinian; conquered by <BR> the Arabs in 638. Al Aqsa mosque constructed in 698. Umayyad, then Abbasid, <BR> then Fatimid. In 1099 conquered by the crusaders who established the Kingdom <BR> of Jerusalem. Ceded to Saladin in 1187, briefly christian again 1228, until 1244. <BR> Ottoman 1517-1918, then capital of British mandate over Palestine. In 1948 parti- <BR> tioned in an Arab and an Israeli part; in the Six Days War the Arab part occupied <BR> by Israeli forces. The Jerusalem issue is a major stumbling block in Israeli- <BR> Palestinian negotiations; Israel insists on an undivided Jerusalem as the capital <BR> of Israel, the Palestinians insist on East Jerusalem being the capital of a <BR> Palestinian state. <BR> founded in 1099. Following the Battle of Hattin 1187, King Guy de Lusignan ceded <BR> the city of Jerusalem to Saladin. The Kingdom of Jerualem continued, holding on <BR> to coastal fortresses. The Kingdom repeatedly changed owners; in 1228-1229 <BR> Emperor Frederick II. added the title King of Jerusalem to his collection, and <BR> regained the city (until 1244). The Kingdom ceased to exist with the fall of Acre, <BR> the last crusader fortress in Palestine, in 1291. However, several European dy- <BR> nasties continued to claim the title King of Jerusalem. <BR> Ottoman from 1517 to 1918; as Transjordan seperated from the British Mandate <BR> of Palestine. Made an Emirate, with Hashemite Abdullah being the Emir. When<BR> Transjordan was released into independence in 1946, the country name was <BR> changed into Jordan. Between 1948 and 1967, Jordan administrated the West <BR> Bank and the Arab sector of Jerusalem. These areas were occupied by Israel <BR> during the Six Days War. In 1988, Jordan renounced her claim on the West Bank. <BR> communal, mostly agricultural settlements in Israel, based on a socialist con- <BR> cept - work is shared equally, as are the installations of the Kibbutz. No sala- <BR> ries are paid. The first Kibbutzim were founded in 1909. <BR> people c. 15 million strong, living in southeastern Turkey, western Iran, northern <BR> Iraq and northeastern Syria. They speak a language related to Persian (many <BR> dialects) anmd mostly are Sunni Muslims. There have been attempts of esta- <BR> blishing Kurdish states (Sulaymaniya 1923, Mahabad 1946); in the 1980es and <BR> 1990es the PKO undertook terrorit acts against the Turkish govt.; the Kurds of <BR> Iraq have been victimized by dictator addam Hussein. Since 1991 the Kurdish <BR> lands in northern Iraq were protected by the northern no-fly-zone and admini- <BR> strated their area autonomously. <BR> signed in 1923, ending the war in Turkey. The Treaty recognized the Republic <BR> of Turkey and in effect nullified the Treaty of Sevres, as far as Turkey is con- <BR> cerned. <BR> In 1926 France gave in to Maronite demands and created Grand Liban (Greater <BR> Lebanon), an area which included Maronite christians, Druzes, Sunni and <BR> Shi'ite Muslims. The Lebanese constitution of 1943 provided for a christian <BR> president and a Muslim prime minister. This complex ethnic balance was <BR> threatened by the influx of large numbers of Palestinian refugees, the numbers <BR> of whom increased after Black September (1970). Palestinian militias controlled <BR> entire sections of the country; other ethnic groups formed militias of their own <BR> and armed themselves, often with support from the outside. In 1975 the Lebanese <BR> Civil War erupted; in 1982 Israel interfered, establishing the Security Zone along <BR> its border. By 1990 the civil war had ended - the country still being fragmentized, <BR> Syrian and Israeli troops still stationed in the country. The latter withdrew in 2000. <BR> as an administrative entity created in 1860, by the Ottoman Sultan, at French <BR> request. The Lebanon, in the borders of 1860, had a clear majority of Maronite <BR> christians. In 1922, France was granted the League of Nations mandate over <BR> Syria and Lebanon. In 1926 France created Grand Liban - Greater Lebanon, <BR> which became independent in 1943. In the 1960es the banking center of the Arab <BR> world, moderately prosperous. In 1975 the Lebanese Civil War erupted; the <BR> country was fragmented in tiny militia-held territories, most militias depending on <BR> foreign support. The civil war ended in 1990; Lebanon slowly recovers. <BR> Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia, capital Sis, 1080-1375, when it was conquered by <BR> Ramazan Turks. <BR> click <A HREF = "hdorthodoxy.html#maronitech">here</A> <BR> Arabs inhabiting the marshes in the lower Euphrates and Tigris region, mostly <BR> Shi'ites. After the Shi'ites of southern Iraq had failed to topple Saddam Hussein <BR> in a 1991 rebellion, he had many suspected opponents executed and the <BR> marshes systematically drained. The land desertified, the area was depopulated; <BR> c.200,000 fled to Iran. <BR> City located on the middle Tigris; in Ottoman times province capital. The Sykes- <BR> Picot Agreement allocated the city to the French sphere; it was occupied by <BR> the British in 1918, who included the Mosul region into the newly created King- <BR> dom of Iraq in 1921. Oil was found nearby in 1927. <BR> landlocked region in northeastern Arabia, adjacent to Iraq, Kuwait, el Hasa. <BR> Capital Riyadh. Here Wahhabism emerged. In 1902 Ibn Saud conquered Riyadh; <BR> Najd is the nucleus of Saudi Arabia (formed in 1932). <BR> in the early 16th century the Ottoman Empire conquered Yemen; but Ottoman <BR> authority was only temporarily effective. In 1839, the British E.I.C. occupied Aden <BR> and, in subsequent decades, the British climd Southern Yemen as their sphere <BR> of interest, while the Ottoman Empire, until 1918, held on to Northern Yemen. <BR> Northern Yemen became independent in 1918 and lived through a civil war be- <BR> tween Royalist and Republican forces in 1962-1970, in which Saudi Arabia sup- <BR> ported the Royalists, Egypt the Republicans. In 1970 the Republic was introduced <BR> In 1990 Northern and Southern Yemen unified. <BR> In 1973 the governments of major oil producers raised the price for crude oil <BR> significantly, for political as well as economic reasons. The pice remained high <BR> until well into the First Gulf War (1980-1988). Western governments responded by <BR> measures reducing oil consumption, by further exploration and by tapping alter- <BR> native energy sources. <BR> In 1698 the Sultan of Oman conquered Zanzibar and expelled the Portuguese from <BR> Mombasa; in 1741 Omani Arabs expelled Ottoman forces from Muscat. In 1841, the <BR> possessions in Africa (Sultanate of Zanzibar) and in Arabia (Sultanate of Oman) <BR> wee split. In 1897 Oman becam a British protectorate; in 1971, Oman regained <BR> independence. <BR> Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; established 1960, caused the Oil <BR> Crisis of 1973. Has taken on a more moderate policy since <BR> click <A HREF = "hdeeurope.html#ottomanempire">here</A> <BR> until 1918 merely a geographical entity. In 1922 the League of Nations granted <BR> the Mandate over Palestine to Britain (which administered the country since 1917/ <BR> 1918). In the Balfour Declaration of 1917, Britain had promised a Jewish Homeland <BR> in Palestine; Jewish immigration into Palestine, from Europe, had begun in the <BR> 1880es. In the 1930es the isue of Jewish immigration cauesd Arab resistance <BR> (First Intifada 1935-1938), while British restrictions imposed on Jewish immigration <BR> caused Jewish resentment. In 1947 Britain announced her intention to withdraw <BR> from Palestine; the UN general assembly voted to partition Palestine into an Arab <BR> and a Jewish state. This was implemented in 1948; almost six decades and 3 wars <BR> later, the matter of the allocation of land in Palestine, to a Jewish Israel and an <BR> Arab Palestine, is still unresolved. <BR> Arab population of Palestine. The Palestinians are subdivided into three groups : <BR> (1) the Palestinians living within the borders of Israel of 1966; they technically are <BR> citizens of Israel. (2) The Palestinians living in the West Bank and Gaza. (3) <BR> Palestinians living in exile, mostly in refugee camps in neighbouring Arab <BR> countries. The majority of the Palestinians are Sunni Muslims, a minority is <BR> christian. <BR> in a narrower sense, historical region in southern Iran (Persis); in a wider sense <BR> the state of the Safavid Dynasty and their successors. Was renamed Iran in <BR> 1935. <BR> click <A HREF = "hdcasia.html#persianrevolution">here</A> <BR> Palestine Liberation Organization, founded in 1964, headed by Yasser Arafat. <BR> Is held responsible for numerous terrorist acts. In 1970 expelled from Jordan <BR> (Black September), in 1982 from Lebanon. Since 1993 the PLO has entered in <BR> negotiations with Israel (Oslo 1993) and recognized Israel in the borders of 1966. <BR> until 1868 held by the Shaikhs of Bahrain; then occupied by Ottoman forces. In <BR> 1916 Britain recognized Shaikh Abdullah bin Jassin al Thani as ruler of Qatar, <BR> which became a British protectorate. Qatar became independent in 1971. Qatar <BR> began to export oil in 1949. <BR> Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon. During the Lebanese Civl War, in 1982 <BR> Christian militiamen entered the camps and opened fire at civilians. Ariel Sharon <BR> is held responsible. The Palestinians then left Lebanon, for Tunisia. <BR> click <A HREF = "hdcasia.html#safaviddyn">here</A> <BR> click <A HREF = "hdcasia.html#sassands">here</A> <BR> Ibn Saud established himself as ruler of Najd when conquering Riyadh in 1902. <BR> In 1920/1923 he acquired Asir, in 1924 he conquered Hejaz. In 1932, Hejaz and <BR> Najd were merged to form Saudi Arabia. In 1938, oil was found in Saudi Arabia. <BR> branch of the Oghuz Turks, which in the 11thy to 14th centuries migrated into <BR> Asia Minor. First mercenaries serving various Arab dynasties, in 1071 under <BR> Alp Arslan a Seljuk army defeated the Byzantinians and established a Seljuk <BR> state in Anatolia, the Sultante of Rum, capital Konya. Under his successors it <BR> fragmentized; one of the fragments being the Ottoman state. <BR> peace treaty for the Ottoman Empire following WW I, signed in 1920. It remained <BR> a dead letter, as meanwhile the Republic of Turkey was formed which refused <BR> to recognize the treaty; the Treaty of Lausanne of 1923 brought peace to the <BR> region. <BR> click <A HREF = "hdnafrica.html#sixdayswar">here</A> <BR> hinterland of Aden, which was British 1839-1967. Britain regarded the area her <BR> sphere of influence; independent in 1967, soon adopted socialism. In 1990 <BR> unified with Northern Yemen. <BR> agreement in which Britain and France agreed over the post-war partition of the <BR> Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire (1916); Syria and Lebanon were allocated <BR> to France, Palestine and Iraq to Britain. <BR> until 1918 merely a geographical entity. In 1922 the League of Nations granted <BR> France a mandate over Syria and Lebanon. France administratively separated <BR> the Greater Lebanon and the Alawite territory from the remainder of Syria. Syria <BR> in 1941 declared independence and annexed the Alawite Territory minus Hatay. <BR> In 1944 Syrian independence was internationally recognized. Syria participated <BR> in the three Arab-Iraeli Wars (1948, 1967, 1973); in 1967 Israel occupied the <BR> Syrian Golan Heights, and still holds on to them. In the Lebanese Civil War <BR> (1975-1990), Syrian troops and pro-Syrian Lebanese forces established control <BR> over the larger part of the country. In 2000, dictator Hafez el Assad handed power <BR> over to his son Basher. <BR> a reform policy implemented in the Ottoman Empire in 1839-1876. The Tanzimat <BR> reforms were initiated by officials in the state administration (reform from above). <BR> Success was mixed and differed from region to region within the vast Ottoman <BR> Empire. <BR> founded as a Jewish city in Ottoman Palestine in 1909. The various Jewish orga- <BR> nizations in Palestine, during the Ottoman and British periods, had their head- <BR> quarters here. Capital of Israel 1948-1967. <BR> see under Jordan <BR> Crusader state in modern Lebanon, established in 1102, conquered in 1289 by <BR> the Mamluks. <BR> expression describing the modern U.A.E. 1820-1971; alternatively Trucial Oman. <BR> Name derives from agreements the local shaykhs entered with the British in 1820 <BR> / 1853, promising to give up piracy. <BR> until 1921 merely a geographic entity. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed <BR> in 1921 and internationally recognized in 1923, in the Treaty of Lausanne. Her <BR> first president, Mustapha Kemal (Ataturk) implemented numerous reforms, <BR> making the country a secular state and parliamentary democracy. Annexed <BR> Alexandrette in 1938, remained neutral in WW II. Military coups d'etat in 1960, <BR> 1971, 1980. <BR> United Arab Emirates - founded in 1971 by Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, <BR> Sharjah and Umm al Qiwain; in 1972 joined by Ras al Khaimah. Joined the Gulf <BR> Cooperation Council in 1981. Oil exporter. <BR> ruled the Caliphate from 661 to 750, capital Damascus. A branch of the family <BR> continued to rule in Cordoba, Islamic Spain, from 756 to 1031, until 929 as Emirs, <BR> since 929 as Caliphs. <BR> area in Palestine which, according to the partition plan approved by the General <BR> Assembly of the United Nations in 1947, was allocated to an Arab state in Palestine. <BR> Occupied by Jordan 1948-1967, eveer since by Israel. <BR> or Yezidi, mostly Kurdish followers of a Gnostic religion believed to be a branch of <BR> Mithraism, which again derives from Zoroastrianism. The Yazidi live in the Iraqi <BR> sections of Kurdistan and number several 100,000. <BR> country in southern Arabia, with an ancient history; home to the legendary Queen <BR> of Sheba. In the 5th century A.D. Himyarite Kingdom, which had a significant <BR> christian population when the King introduced Judaism as state religion. Con- <BR> quered by Islam in the 7th century. Had connections with India since ancient <BR> times. Annexed by the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century; Ottoman authority, <BR> because of the rugged mountainous landscape and the remote location, was <BR> for long periods of time merely nominal. In 1839 the British E.I.C. occupied Aden. <BR> In 1918 Northern Yemen became independent from the Ottoman Empire, while <BR> the British extended their influence over the Southwern Yemen. Northern Yemen <BR> lived through a civil war 1962-1970, and in 1970 became a republic. In 1990, <BR> Northern and Southern Yemen were unified. <BR> click <A HREF = "hdnafrica.html#yomkippurwar">here</A> <BR> 1908 coup of nationalist officers who demanded political reforms. Sultan Abdul <BR> Hamid II was forced to assemble a parliamnt in 1908, to resgn in 1909. They are <BR> blamed for measures undertaken against ethnic minorities suspected of being <BR> illoyal to the Ottoman Empire in WW I (Armenian Genocide etc.) <BR> political movement of establishing a Jewish nation state. Among its fathers <BR> Hungarian Journalist Theodor Herzl, who wrote "The Jewish State" (1896). Jewish <BR> immigration to Palstine began in the 1880es. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 ob- <BR> liged the British administration to the establishment of a Jewish Homeland in <BR> Palestine. <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> ONLINE REFERENCE : <BR> <A HREF = "http://i-cias.com/e.o/index.htm">Encyclopedia of the Orient</A> <BR> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> </DIV><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? 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