ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Course in World History : Political Geography of Medieval Europe</title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2006 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/whchapters.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on July 16th 2006 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : Political Geography of Medieval Europe </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/wh/hdpolgeo.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "150"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> <A NAME = "aragon"><B>Aragon, <BR> Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "austrianlands"><B>Austrian Lands</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bavaria"><B>Bavaria, Duchy of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bohemia"><B>Bohemia, Kingdom</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bohemianlands"><B>Bohemian Crown, <BR> Lands of the</B></A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "brandenburg"><B>Brandenburg, <BR> Margraviate of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bretagne"><B>Bretagne, Duchy of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> Britanny <BR> <A NAME = "bulgaria"><B>Bulgaria</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kgdburgundy"><B>Burgundy, Kingdom </B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "dburgundy"><B>Burgundy, Duchy of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "castile"><B>Castile, Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "catalonia"><B>Catalonia</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "corsica"><B>Corsica</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "croatia"><B>Croatia</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "dalmatia"><B>Dalmatia</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "denmark"><B>Denmark, <BR> Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "efrkgd"><B>East Frankish <BR> Kingdom</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "easternbaltic"><B>Eastern Baltic</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "elbeslavs"></B>Elbe Slavs</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "england"><B>England, <BR> Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "estonia"><B>Estonia</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "flanders"><B>Flanders, <BR> County of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "france"><B>France</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "genoa"><B>Genoa, <BR> Republic of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "germany"><B>Germany</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> Golden Horde, <BR> Khanate of <BR> <A NAME = "gotland"><B>Gotland</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "guyenne"><B>Guyenne, <BR> Duchy of</B></A> <BR> Gyula <BR> <A NAME = "holland"><B>Holland, <BR> County of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "hre"><B>Holy Roman <BR> Empire</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "hungary"><B>Hungary</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "iceland"><B>Iceland</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ireland"><B>Ireland</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "italy"><B>Italy, Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kievanrus"><B>Kievan Rus</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kipchaktatars"><B>Kipchak Tatars, <BR> Khanate of the</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "leon"><B>Leon, Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "lithuania"><B>Lithuania</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "livonia"><B>Livonian Order, <BR> State of the</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "lordshipoftheisles"><B>Lordship of the Isles</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "lorraine"><B>Lorraine, Duchy of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "isleofman"><B>Man, Isle of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "moldavia"><B>Moldavia</B></A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "moravia"><B>Moravia</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "navarra"><B>Navarra, <BR> Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "netherlands"><B>Netherlands, the</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "normandy"><B>Normandy, <BR> Duchy of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "norway"><B>Norway, <BR> Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "papalstate"><B>Papal State</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "poland"><B>Poland, Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "portugal"><B>Portugal, <BR> Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "prussia"><B>Prussia</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> Roman Kingdom <BR> <A NAME = "sardinia"><B>Sardinia</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "saxony"><B>Saxony</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "scotland"><B>Scotland, Kingdom</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "serbia"><B>Serbia</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sicily"><B>Sicily, <BR> Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "silesia"><B>Silesia</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "muslimspain"><B>Spain, Muslim</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sweden"><B>Sweden, <BR> Kingdom of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "swissfederation"><B>Swiss Federation</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "teutonicorder"><B>Teutonic Order, <BR> State of the</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "transylvania"><B>Transylvania</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "unionofkalmar"><B>Union of Kalmar</B></A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "venice"><B>Venice, <BR> Republic of</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "wales"><B>Wales</B></A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "wallachia"><B>Wallachia</B></A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "wfrkgd"><B>West Frankish <BR> Kingdom</B></A> <BR><BR> </font></TD> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "500"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> Kingdom in northeastern Spain, established in 1035. From her base on the southern <BR> slopes of the Pyrenees, Aragon expanded southward by conquest; Zaragoza was <BR> taken in 1118. In 1162 the Kingdom of Aragon and the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#catalonia">County of Barcelona</A> were <BR> combined in dynastic union. The dynasty in the 13th century acquired the Kingdoms <BR> of Valencia, the Balearic Islands, <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#sardinia">Sardinia</A> and <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#sicily">Sicily</A> (without her mainland possessions). <BR> From 1479 to 1504 and since 1516 in dynastic union with <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#castile">Castile</A>. Aragon, <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#catalonia">Catalonia</A>, <BR> Valencia and the Baleares, within the Kingdom of Spain, maintained their own parliaments <BR> (cortes) until 1707/1715. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/spain/xaragon.html">here</A> for a more detailed history of Aragon <BR> In 1278 the Habsburg Dynasty acquired the Duchies of Austria and Styria; Carniola and <BR> Carinthia in 1335, Tyrol in 1369, Trieste in 1382. The combination of these territories, <BR> while maintaining their territorial institutions, and for certain periods of history ruled by <BR> separate branches of the Habsburg Dynasty, is referred to as the Austrian Lands. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xat.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> 550-757 independent duchy; from 757 onward duchy within Frankish Kingdom, since 840 <BR> within the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#efrkgd">East Frankish Kingdom</A> / Roman Kingdom / <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>. From <BR> 1255 to 1506 partitioned in three lines; since 1180 held by the Wittelsbach Dynasty. <BR> Converted to Catholic Christianity in the 8th century. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xbavaria.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Slavic duchy which converted to Catholic Christianity in the 10th century. Became part of <BR> the Roman Kingdom / <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>; several of the dukes of Bohemia used the <BR> title of King (stressing Bohemia's independence from the Empire); since 1198 the right of <BR> the rulers of Bohemia to be crowned kings was recognized, while the Bohemians <BR> recognized their country forming part of the Empire. Luxemburg Dynasty 1310-1437, <BR> Habsburg Dynasty 1526-1918. Origin of the Hussite Movement; the Defenestration of <BR> Prague 1618 ignited the 30 Years War. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xbohemia.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Since 1182 the Dukes/Kings of Bohemia also were Margraves of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#moravia">Moravia</A>, since 1076 of <BR> Lusatia, since 1335/1368 Dukes of Silesia. The combination of Bohemia, Lusatia, <BR> Silesia and <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#moravia">Moravia</A>, while maintaining territorial institutions, came under common <BR> administration, and as such was known as the lands of the Bohemian Crown. <BR> Until into the 12th century territory of the pagan <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#elbeslavs">Elbe Slavs</A>. The process of conquest by <BR> the Empire began in the late 10th century; the Margraviate of Brandenburg, under the <BR> Askanian Dynasty, was established in 1134. 1323-1373 Wittelsbach Dynasty; in 1356 the <BR> Margraves of Bandenburg were recognized as being among the seven electors of the <BR> <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>. Since 1415 Zollern (Hohenzollern) Dynasty. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/prusindex.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Region in western <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#france">France</A>, the inhabitants of which speak a Celtic language - Breton. <BR> Forced into submission by Charlemagne, the Bretagne regained independence in 841. <BR> The Kingdom of Bretagne (in English often called Brittany) was exposed to Viking raids. <BR> In the 10th century the dynasty ceased to claim the title of kings, and in the 14th century <BR> became a duchy within the Kingdom of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#france">France</A>. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/france/xbretagne.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> see under <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#bretagne">Bretagne</A> <BR> The Bulgarians, a pastoral nomadic people related to the Huns, moved into present-day <BR> Bulgaria in the 7th century. Following the conversion to Orthodox Christianity, the ruling <BR> Bulgarians asimilated into the Slavic culture of the people they ruled. Bulgaria was a <BR> Byzantine province 1018-1185; then the Second Bulgarian Empire was established; in the <BR> 14th century it was split; the fragments were conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1393-<BR> 1396. Click <A HREF = "../../region/balkans/xbulgaria.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> In 843/880 the Frankish Kingdom was partitioned in three parts. The part given to Lothaire <BR> (Lotharingia - Lorraine) soon further disintegrated. In 935 the two Kingdoms of Upper and <BR> Lower Burgundy were reunited to form the Kingdom of Burgundy, with capital in Arles <BR> (Arelat). From 1033 onward it was combined with the Empire in Dynastic Union; it was <BR> practically annexed into the Empire. In the 14th century, <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#france">France</A> began annexing its <BR> territory peace by peace. <BR> Western stretch of the lands held by the Burgundians in the early 6th century, when <BR> Burgundy was conquered by the Franks. In French called Bourgogne. When the Frankish <BR> Kingdom was partitioned in 843/880, the region, as Duchy of Burgundy, was placed <BR> within the West Frankish Kingdom (<A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#france">France</A>). In 1364 the Duchy was granted to a sideline <BR> of the House of Valois; Philip the Bold and his descendants pursued a dynastic policy of <BR> their own, rivalling the Kings of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#france">France</A>. The Burgundian Dukes acquired territories <BR> in the Netherlands and greatly contributed to the unification of the latter, establishing a <BR> second court in Brussels. The line ended in 1477/1482, when the Habsburgs inherited <BR> their possessions in the Netherlands, while <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#france">France</A> reclaimed the Duchy of Burgundy. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/france/xburgundy.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> In Spanish : Castilla. A former county of the Kingdom of Leon, capital Burgos. In 1230, the Kingdoms of Castile and Leon were united in Dynastic Union, and the union became <BR> known as Castile. Castile was a major player in the Reconquista. In 1479-1504 and since <BR> 1516, Castile and <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#aragon">Aragon</A> were united in Dynastic Union; the country became known as <BR> Spain. Castile maintained her separate institutions, such as the Cortes (until 1707). <BR> In the 9th century the (Frankish) County of Barcelona; since 1162 in Dynastic Union with <BR> the Kingdom of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#aragon">Aragon</A>. Catalonia maintained her separate institutions (the Generalidad) <BR> and Catalonia (Catalunya) her separate identity, most notably the Catalan language. <BR> Barcelona evolved into the economic center of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#aragon">Aragonese Kingdom</A>. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/spain/xaragon.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Large island in the western Mediterranean, presently belonging to <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#france">France</A>. From 526 into <BR> the 8th century Byzantine, then under Arab rule. In the 11th century Pisa ousted the <BR> Saracens; in 1282 Genoa succeeded Pisa as the dominant power controlling Corsica. <BR> Byzantines, Arabs, Pisa and Genoa had in common strong fleets, control of the ports <BR> and of the island's overseas connections. Corsican society adapted to these conditions, <BR> but developed distrust against authorities and a strong common bond. Corsica would <BR> remain, nominally, Genoese until the Republic sold the island to <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#france">France</A> in 1768. <BR> The Croats, then pagan Slavs under Avar rule, settled modern Croatia in the 7th century. <BR> They converted to Catholicism in 925, with Croatia becoming a kingdom. In 1102 Croatia <BR> and Hungary were united in Dynastic Union; Croatia maintained her Sabor (parliament). <BR> While <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#dalmatia">Dalmatia</A> was contested between Hungary, Byzantium, Venice, Serbia, the <BR> Herzegovina and later the Ottoman Empire, core Croatia was reduced to being a sideland <BR> of the Hungarian crown. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/balkans/xcroatia.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Region on the eastern coast of the northern Adriatic sea. In the Early Middle Ages, pagan <BR> Croats and Serb settled the hinterland, the Roman population fleeing into defensible <BR> coastal towns and onto nearby islands. Dalmatia thus was home to both speakers of <BR> Italian and Slav languages. The Italian-speaking islands and cities were long held by <BR> Byzantium, later by the Republic of Venice; Byzantine/Venetian authority over the Slavic <BR> hinterland was less firm, at times contested by <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#croatia">Croatia</A>, Serb states, Hungary, later the <BR> Ottoman Empire. The Republic of Ragusa (= Dubrovnik), from the 14th century to 1808, <BR> was independent. <BR> In 965 the Kingdom of Denmark converted to Christianity. Then including Schleswig, <BR> Scania, Blekinge and Halland. Of Viking heritage, Denmark continued to pursue an <BR> expansionist policy; <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#estonia">Estonia</A> was conquered in 1219, but pawned to the Livonian Order <BR> in 1346. Union of Kalmar (Dynastic Union of Denmark, Norway, Sweden) established in <BR> 1395, dominated by Denmark. Denmark controlled the Sound, i.e. all traffic in and out of <BR> the Baltic Sea; the Sound Levy was Denmark's main source of income until into the 19th <BR> century. Click <A HREF = "../../region/scandinavia/xdenmark.html">here</A> for more information <BR> In 843/880 the Frankish Kingdom was partitioned among the grandsons of Charlemagne. <BR> In 888 the nobles of the East Frankish Kingdom adopted a constitution making their <BR> Kingdom indivisible, and kingship elective in case the deceased king had no son. <BR> East Frankish King Otto I. in 962 was crowned Roman Emperor, and from 962 until 1806 <BR> only the East Frankish king qualified to be crowned Emperor by the pope (not every <BR> East Frankish king was crowned). Contemporary medieval sources, since 962, refer to <BR> East Frankish kings as Roman kings, notwithstanding the fact that Rome was located <BR> outside of the kingdom. The adjective Roman pertains to the origin of the title of Emperor. <BR> Historians have used the terms East Frankish Kingdom, Holy Roman Empire or simply <BR> 'The Empire' to describe it. 19th century German historians used the term 'German Empire', which is resented by the Czechs, Dutch and other non-German nationalities who also trace their history back to the Holy Roman Empire. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xhre.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> The lands of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#estonia">Estonia</A>, Livonia, Lithuania and Prussia. Pagan until into the 13th century, <BR> together with Finland they became the object of crusade conquests in the early 13th <BR> century. <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#denmark">Denmark</A> conquered <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#estonia">Estonia</A>, the Livonian Order Livonia, the Teutonic Order <BR> Prussia. The conquerors forcibly converted the natives, and reduced them to the status <BR> of serfs. The countries were ruled by an immigrant nobility which, until into the 20th <BR> century, maintained a German identity, as did the burghers of the cities. In Prussia, there <BR> was a significant population of immigrant German peasants; the ethnic Prussian <BR> population was assimilated into the German culture; the Estonians, Livonians and <BR> Curonians (the latter two Latvians) maintained their identity. The Lithuanians, for centuries <BR> targets of christian crusades, upheld their independence, established a monarchy of <BR> their own, in 1385 converted to Catholicism. <BR> For more details, click History of <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xestonia.html">Estonia</A>, <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xlivonia.html">Livonia</A>, <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xlithuania.html">Lithuania</A>, <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xteutorder.html">Teutonic Order</A> <BR> The land separating Charlemagne's Empire from what was to become Poland in the 10th <BR> century was, in the 9th and 10th centuries, inhabited by a number of pagan Slavic <BR> peoples. In the 10th century, the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#efrkgd">East Frankish Kingdom</A> (the Empire) began a series of <BR> campaigns against the Elbe Slavs, with the aim to force them into submission and <BR> conversion. Temporarily successful, the invaders often were expelled again by pagan <BR> rebellions. Imperial sovereigny further was contested by Poland and <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#denmark">Denmark</A>. In the <BR> 11th century, pagan resistance was broken, the Elbe Slavs reduced to the status of serfs <BR> and placed under a partially converted Slav nobility, partially under an immigrant German <BR> nobility. The establishment of cities and monasteries (w. maintained a German identity), <BR> and the Lutheran Reformation (elementary schooling in German) resulted in the assimiltion <BR> of most Elbe Slavs, with the exception of the Sorbs in Lusatia. <BR> The Heptarchy was destroyed by the Danes in 965; of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, only <BR> Wessex and parts of Mercia and Northumberland remained outside the Danelaw. Edward <BR> the Elder, King of Wessex, by conquering the Danelaw and absorbing the Kingdom of <BR> Mercia (918) unified England (w. the exception of the northern regions of Northumberland, <BR> which would become part of Scotland). 1013-1042 under Danish kings, in 1066 conquered <BR> by Duke William of Normandy, w. introduced feudalism. The Norman nobility of England, <BR> for over 3 centuries, would continue to speak French. <BR> Land on the Eastern Baltic. The Estonians, until into the 13th century, held on to paganism. <BR> Conquered by Denmark in 1219 (southern Estonia by the Livonian Knights), the Danes <BR> pawned their part of Estonia to the Livonian knights in 1346 and for the next couple of <BR> centuries, Estonia and Livonia shared a common history. See under <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#easternbaltic">Eastern Baltic</A>. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xestonia.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Land in the west of modern Belgium, south of estuary of Rhine and Maas. The partitions <BR> of the Frankish Kingdom of 843-880 left Flemish-speaking Flanders within West Frankish <BR> Kingdom (= France). Flanders always was a territory of exceptional importance; in 1204 <BR> Count Baldwin of Flanders was crowned Emperor of the Latin Empire. Brugge (Bruges) in <BR> Flanders developed into the most important trade center on the Atlantic coast; Flanders, <BR> based on her thriving textile industry, developed into Europe's most urbanized region north <BR> of the Alps (14th c). In 1384, the Duke of Burgundy inherited Flanders; in the following <BR> decades it became part of the Burgundian Netherlands. <BR> Kingdom created by the partitions of the Frankish Kingdom in 843/880, the West Frankish <BR> Kingdom. In 887/888 the constitution of an indivisible kingdom was established; Capetian <BR> Dynasty 987-1328, Valois Dynasty 1328-1589. The powerful dukes, although nominally <BR> vassalls of the kings of France, long posed a threat to the unity of the kingdom. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/france/xfrance.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> City republic in northwestern Italy. From the 13th to the 18th century the city controlled <BR> Liguria and Corsica; from the 13th to the 15th century it rivalled Venice and held on to <BR> possessions in the Aegaean (Lesbos) and the Black Sea (Caffa). Transformed into <BR> the Ligurian Republic in 1797; annexed into Piemont in 1815. Hometown of Columbus; <BR> in Italian called Genova. <BR> Click <A HREF = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/italy/xgenova.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> The language border separating the French and German speaking peoples emerged in <BR> the 9th century, with the Germanic Frankish ruling elite assimilating into their French <BR> speaking surroundings, while the various Germanic dialects within the East Frankish <BR> Kingdom, in a process going through several stages, formed the foundation for a <BR> common German language (with the exception of Frisian). These Germans formed the <BR> bulk of the population of the East Frankish Kingdom / Roman Kingdom / Holy Roman <BR> Empire, but this complex political structure, which expanded significantly during the <BR> High Middle Ages, also contained other ethnicities, Slavs in <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#bohemia">Bohemia</A>, Slovenia and <BR> the lands east of the Elbe/Saale line, French speakers in Wallonia, Lorraine, in the <BR> absorbed Kingdom of Burgundy, Italians in the absorbed Kingdom of Italy. <BR> German historians of the 19th and early 20th century used the term 'German Empire' <BR> to describe the East Frankish Kingdom / Roman Kingdom / Holy Roman Empire; this <BR> usage is resented by Czechs, Poles and others. Germany, in German, is called <BR> Deutschland, a term etymologically translating to 'land of the people'. <BR> see under Kipchak Tatars, Khanate of <BR><BR> Island located in the center of the Baltic Sea. The island Thing voluntarily accepted <BR> christianity c.1000. At the end of the Viking Era a republic engaged in maritime trade, the <BR> trade center of the Baltic Sea, a position it successively lost to the Hanseatic League. <BR> Non-feudal. In 1361 raided by a Danish army; from 1409 to 1643 Danish sideland. <BR> Duchy located in SW France, from 1152 to 1453 by the Kings of England. Another name <BR> for Aquitaine. <BR> see under Transylvania <BR> First mentioned as County of Holland in 1076; William Count of Holland was Roman King <BR> 1248-1256. In 1299 Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut were combined in dynastic union. <BR> Westfriesland was conquered by the end of the 13th century, but the Westfrisians <BR> maintained a separate identity. 1428 Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut were acquired by <BR> the Duke of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#burgundy">Burgundy</A>; Holland became part of the Burgundian Netherlands. In the 15th <BR> century Holland experienced urbanization, which continued in the 16th century. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/lowcountries/xholland.html">here</A> for more information <BR> In 962 Otto I., King of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#efrkgd">East Frankish Kingdom</A>, was crowned Roman Emperor. Until <BR> 1806, the successors to him as king were the only legitimate candidates for the title <BR> of Roman Emperor. The perception of this connection was so strong, that, in <BR> contemporary sources, the term Roman King is used (instead of East Frankish King). <BR> Later, the state was called Holy Roman Empire, in the 16th century even Holy Roman <BR> Empire of German Nation, despite the city of Rome not being part of it. From 1254 <BR> onward, the position of Emperor was weak (an elected position), and the Empire <BR> more and more took on the character of a federation with an elected monarch. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xhre.html">here</A> for more information <BR> Land of the Magyars; the Latin word Hungaria literally means land of the Huns. <BR> The Magyars arrived in the Carpathian Basin in 895. Hungary converted to <BR> Catholicism in around 1000, and was elevated into a kingdom. Transylvania and <BR> Croatia were absorbed. Hungary suffered defeat at the hands of the Kipchak Tatars <BR> in the Battle of Sajo in 1241, but recovered, as the Tatars did not return. <BR> Arpag Dynasty 895-1038, 1047-1301; Angevin Dynasty 1308-1386, Luxemburg Dynasty <BR> 1387-1437, Jagiellon Dynasty 1490-1526. In 1526 diastrous defeat at the hands of the <BR> Ottomans in the Battle of Mohacs. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xhungary.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Viking Republic founded on a hitherto uninhabited island in 930; central authority <BR> the Althingi. Iceland's Althingi voluntarily accepted Catholic Christianity c.1000. In <BR> 1262 Icelandic independence ended, when the land recognized the sovereignty <BR> of the Kings of Norway. With Norway and Denmark in dynastic union since 1376, <BR> Iceland's dependence shifted from Norway to Denmark. Non-feudal. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/scandinavia/xiceland.html">here</A> for more information <BR> According to tradition, converted to Christianity in the 5th century. A peculiar Iro- <BR> Scottish church emerged, which contributed greatly to converting England and much <BR> of continental Europe, but which did not integrate into the Catholic Church. The <BR> English conquest of Ireland began in the late 12th century; with it, feudalism and <BR> the Catholic church were introduced. The English grip on Ireland was not secure, <BR> Ireland saw frequent rebellions. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/britain/xireland.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> A Kingdom covering Northern Italy up to a line north of Rome and Ravenna, established <BR> by the Lombards in 568, conquered by the Franks in 774. Partitioning of the Frankish <BR> Kingdom in 839 resulted in the reestablishment of the Kingdom of Italy in 839. In 1004 <BR> the Kingdom of Italy was combined in dynastic union with the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>, <BR> which absorbed it. The Emperors found their Italian subjects to be rebellious. <BR> A state which according to legend was founded by Varangian Rurik in Novgorod in <BR> 862. The capital was moved to Kiev in 880. The state converted to Orthodox Christianity <BR> in 988. Kievan Rus was divided in a number of principalities; brother inherited brother, <BR> the oldest residing in the most prestigious capital - Kiev. Kiev was taken by the Kipchak <BR> Tatars in 1240; the Russian princes became vassalls of the Kipchak Tatars. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../russia/xrussia.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Genghis Khan send the Kipchak Tatars, which he regarded troublemakers, westward <BR> with the task to conquer the lands of the west. In 1236 they conquered the Volga <BR> Bulgars, in 1240 Kiev, in 1241 they defeated a Polish-Imperial force in the Battle of <BR> Legnica, a Hungarian force in the Battle of Sajo. They established a Khanate, often <BR> called the Khanate of the Golden Horde, in the steppe regions of southern Russia, <BR> capital Saray (near modern Volgograd). The Russian principalities were tributary to <BR> the Khan in Saray. The Kipchak Tatars adopted Islam in the first half of the 14th <BR> century. The Khanate suffered devstating raids at the hands of Tamerlane 1395, 1398; <BR> it disintegrated in the 15th century, when the Khanates of Astrakhan, Kazan and the <BR> Crimea broke away. <BR> Most prominent kingdom of early reconquista Spain, located in the northwest of the <BR> peninsula. Established in 913, it comprised of Galicia, Asturias, <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#castile">Castile</A>, northern Portugal. <BR> <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#castile">Castile</A> broke away in the 930es, Portugal in the late 11th century. In 1230, Leon was <BR> combined with <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#castile">Castile</A> in dynastic union, a union dominated by <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#castile">Castile</A>. <BR> Country located on the Eastern Baltic. From the early 13th century on exposed to <BR> crusades with the purpose to submit the Lithuanians to foreign feudal rule. In the <BR> 14th century, the Lithuanian principality expanded, absorbing large areas in <BR> Belarus and Ukraine. Lithuania proper converted to Catholicism in 1385 (her <BR> Belarussian and Ukrainian subjects remined Orthodox). Poland and Lithuania <BR> entered into a dynastic union in 1569, a union dominated by Poland. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xlithuania.html">here</A> for more information <BR> The Brethren of the Sword or Livonian Knights (of northern German origin) began <BR> the conqust of Livonia in 1199; by 1242 the conquest was largely concluded. The <BR> Livonian Order was formally established in 1202. Following a defeat in 1236, the <BR> Order was incorporated into the Teutonic Order. In 1346 <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#estonia">Estonia</A> was purchased <BR> from <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#denmark">Denmark</A>. The union with the Teutonic Order was dissolved in 1525 (Reformation) <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xlivonia.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> A territory comprising of all or of part of the following islands / island groups : <BR> the Orkneys, the Outer and Inner Hebrides, the Isle of Man. A state of Viking <BR> origin, long under Norwegian sovereignty. In 1493 the lordship was confiscated <BR> by the Scottish crown. <BR> Historic duchy, the territory of which is located in the east of modern France, <BR> capital Nancy. For the most part French-speaking; in the extreme north German- <BR> speaking. From 843 to the mid 10th century contested between the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#france">West</A> and <BR> <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#efrkgd">East Frankish Kingdoms</A>. In 959 partitioned into Upper Lorraine (= Lorraine) and <BR> Lower Lorraine (= Brabant). Lorraine formally was part of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>. <BR> The Dukes ruld the duchy rather independently. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xlorraine.html">here</A> for more information <BR> Conquered by the Vikings in the early 9th century; established as the Kingdom of <BR> Man and the Isles in 1079. The Isles were ceded to Scotland in 1266; since 1402 <BR> under English administration; not part of the United Kingdom. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/britain/xisleofman.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Principality in northeastern Romania, emerged in the 14th century. Orthodox <BR> Christian, capital Iassy. Recognized Ottoman sovereignty in 1512. <BR> Margraviate east of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#bohemia">Bohemia</A>; part of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A> since the 11th <BR> century. Since 1182, with brief exceptions, in dynastic union with <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#bohemia">Bohemia</A>; <BR> one of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#bohemianlands">Lands of the Bohemian Crown</A>. Czech-speaking, with communities <BR> of German-speaking immigrants resp. their descendants, on the northern and <BR> southern fringes and in the cities. <BR> Christian Kingdom in / to the south of the western Pyrenees. In 852 established by <BR> the merger of two older kingdoms, capital Pamplona. Climax under King Sancho the <BR> Great (1004-1035); participated in the Reconquista until it no longer had a border <BR> with Muslim Spain. In 1512 the larger, Iberian part of Navarra was occupied by <BR> <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#aragon">Aragon</A>, in 1516 annexed by Spain. In French called Navarre. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/spain/xnavarra.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> The Duchies of Gelre, Brabant, Luxemburg, Limburg; the Counties of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#holland">Holland</A>, <BR> Zeeland, <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#flanders">Flanders</A>, Hainaut, Artois, Namur, then Friesland, Groningen and <BR> Ommelanden, Drente, Overijssel, Utrecht. The process of combining these <BR> territories into the Netherlands was begun by the Dukes of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#burgundy">Burgundy</A> (1384-1482) <BR> and concluded by the Habsburg Dynasty (1482-1536); central institutions <BR> included the Ducal Court in Brussels, the parliament in Mechelen, the university in <BR> Leuven. Click <A HREF = "../../region/lowcountries/xnederland.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> The territory of Normandy was conquered by pagan Northmen (Vikings) in the early <BR> 10th century. Their leader Rollo was given the title Count of Rouen in 911 which he <BR> and his successors expanded into the Duchy of Normandy. The Normans converted <BR> to Catholicism and assimilated into the French feudal culture; in 1066 the Normans <BR> conquered England; another group of Normans in the 1030es had begun the conquest <BR> of southern Italy - here they created the Kingdom of Sicily. Normans played a prominent <BR> role in the crusades. The Kings of England (as Dukes and, as such, as vassalls of the <BR> Kings of France) held on to Normandy until 1204, in 1346-1360 and 1415-1450. The <BR> Channel Islands, property of the Crown of England, technically are a remnant of the <BR> Duchy of Normandy to which the Kings of England still hold on. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/france/xnormandy.html">here</A> for more information <BR> Land of origin of the Vikings, together with <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#denmark">Denmark</A> and Sweden. In Viking times pagan; <BR> the Vikings were excellent navigators. The unified kingdom of Norway emerged in the <BR> first half of the 11th century, when christianity was adopted and the tradition of partitioning <BR> the kingdom among the sons of the king was terminated. The Faroes, Shetlands, <BR> <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#isleofman">Man</A> and <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#lordshipoftheisles">the Isles</A>, <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#iceland">Iceland</A> (since 1262) and Greenland were Norwegian sidelands. <BR> Norway suffered greatly from the Little Ice Age and the Black Death (14th century) and <BR> since 1380, in dynastic union with <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#denmark">Denmark</A>, a union dominated by the latter. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/scandinavia/xnorway.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> In 535-553 Byzantinian armies conquered the Ostrogoth Kingdom of Italy. In 568 the <BR> Germanic Lombards conquered much of Italy from the Byzantines; however the <BR> latter held on to Rome, Ravenna and a stretch of land connecting both cities. The <BR> Bishops of Rome (popes) functioned as Byzantine governors. In the following two <BR> centuries, Rome and Ravenna repeatedly were exposed to Lombard attacks. Appeals <BR> for aid to Byzantium were fruitless, as Byzantium had neither money nor men to send. <BR> So the popes appealed to the Franks instead, who came to their aid in 752 and 774. <BR> The falsified Constantinian Donation, a document by which the land around Rome and <BR> Ravenna is donated to the Bishops of Rome, is most likely to be attributed to Frankish <BR> King Pippin (751-768). Thus the Papal State was established; it lasted until 1861. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xpapalstate.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Region inhabited by pagan Westrn Slavs until established as a unified Kingdom in 966, <BR> when the country converted to Catholicism. Between 1138 and 1320 politically fragmented. <BR> Poland became an elective kingdom; the Sejm (parliament where large estate-owning <BR> magnates were the dominant force) was powerful. In dynastic union with the Grand <BR> Duchy of Lithuania since 1569. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xpoland.html">here</A> for more information <BR> Emerged as a county within the Kingdom of Galicia in the 9th century, covering the area <BR> north of the Duero. Later under the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#leon">Kingdom of Leon</A>; became independent kingdom in <BR> 1143. Portugal participated in the Reconquista, in 1415 began with the conquest of <BR> African cities, in 1433 began with the systematic exploration of the African coast. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/spain/xportugal.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Originally the land of the pagan Prussians, located on the east bank of the lower Vistula <BR> river; one of the lands of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#easternbaltic">Eastern Baltic</A>. In the 13th century conquered <BR> by the Teutonic Order; the Prussians were suppressed to the status of Serfs, forcibly <BR> converted to Catholicism. Many German settlers were brought into the land. The Prussian <BR> language was last spoken in the 16th century. In 1309, the Teutonic Order acquired <BR> Eastern Pomerania or Gdansk Pomerania; the name Prussia came to be used for both <BR> historic Prussia east of the lower Vistula, and Eastern Pomerania west of the Lower <BR> Vistula. In 1453 the Estates of Prussia rebelled against the rule of the Teutonic Order <BR> (excessive taxation); in 1466 Prussia was split in Royal Prussia (the west, comprising <BR> of all of Eastern Pomerania, the cities of Danzig, Thorn and Elbing, Warmia and the <BR> Land of Kulm) and into what since 1525 was called Ducal Prussia; in 1525 what was <BR> left of the state of the Teutonic Order was transformed into the Duchy in Prussia. <BR> The more famous Kingdom in/of Prussia (1701-1918) is named after the Duchy in <BR> Prussia, but more of a successor to the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#brandenburg">Margraviate of Brandenburg</A>. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xteutorder.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> see under <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#efrkgd">East Frankish Kingdom</A> and <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A> <BR> Large island located in the western Mediterranean. Under Arab domination from the <BR> 9th to the 11th century, under Pisa from the 11th century to 1323 when the island <BR> came under Aragon. In 1720 it was acquired by Savoy-Piemont and elevated to the <BR> status of a kingdom. In effect, Sardinia was a sideland of Savoy-Piemont; her <BR> autonomous status was cancelled in 1848. In 1861 included into the unified Kingdom <BR> of Italy. <BR> Originally the homeland of the pagan Saxons, roughly identical with modern Lower <BR> Saxony, Westphalia and Holstein. Conquered by the Franks in the late 8th century <BR> and forcibly converted to Christianity, Saxony was administrated as a Duchy within <BR> the Frankish / <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#efrkgd">East Frankish Kingdom</A> / <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>. This duchy was dissolved <BR> in 1180, with the title of Duke of Saxony held by several princes ruling over territory <BR> further to the east. The most important of these where the Dukes from the Wettin <BR> Dynasty, ruling over much of Thuringia and the modern German land by the name <BR> of Saxony; this Duchy of Saxony in 1485 was partitioned into Ernestine and Albertine <BR> Saxony. Ernestine Saxony, capital Wittenberg, was to become the center of the <BR> Lutheran Reformation. Saxony, due to the combination of a mining and metal industry, <BR> fertile farmland, and the trading center of Leipzig, was among the wealthiest regions <BR> of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman Empire</A>. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/germany/xsaxony.html">here</A> for more detailed information on the Wettin Duchy of Saxony. <BR> The Kingdom of the Scots emerged in the 9th century and expanded southward in <BR> the 10th century. 1290-1314 under English administration; independence regained <BR> in the Battl of Bannockburn. Since 1603 in dynastic union with England. In the Act of <BR> Union 1707, the Scottish parliament gave up Scotland's autonomy. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/britain/xscotland.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> The pagan Serbs, then under Avar rule, settled roughly what is modern eastern Bosnia, <BR> Herzegovina, Montenegro, Kosovo and Serbia proper in the 7th century. A number of <BR> Serbian states emerged; in the 9th century the Serbs converted to Orthodox Christianity. <BR> The Serb states of Zeta and Rascia emerged in the 11th century; Rascia became the <BR> nucleus of the Serbian state, which reached its zenith under Stephen Dusan 1331-1355. <BR> In 1459 Serbia (Rascia) was conquered by the Ottomans; Montenegro - a small remnant <BR> of Zeta - maintained her independence. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/balkans/xserbia.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Ruled by the Saracens since the 9th century, the island was conquered by the Normans <BR> in 1060-1090. The Normans had begun the conquest of southern Italy in the 1030es and <BR> organized both regions as the Kingdom of Sicily. 1190-1254 under the rule of the Staufer <BR> Dynasty, who also were <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman Emperors</A>. 1254-1282 Angevin; from 1282 onward <BR> The Kingdom of Sicily (the island) was under <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#aragon">Aragon</A>, the Kingdom of Naples (mainland <BR> parts of the kingdom) Angevin. <BR> The region of Silesia was inhabited by pagan Slavic people, from 966 to 1138 part of the <BR> <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#poland">Kingdom of Poland</A>, since 1138 a separate Duchy, which recognized sovereignty of the <BR> Holy Roman Empire in the later 12th century. Christianity had been accepted in the late <BR> 10th century; immigration of German settlers began in the 13th century. Since 1335/1368, <BR> Silesia was regarded one of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#bohemianlands">Lands of the Bohemian Crown</A>; see under <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#bohemia">Bohemia</A>. <BR> Silesia was fragmented in smaller duchies. Lower Silesia and the Sudeten mountain <BR> region, as well as the cities, had a dominant German population element; in Upper Silesia <BR> the Polish element dominated. <BR> In 711 a Muslim force defeated a much larger Visigoth army; the Visigoth Kingdom was <BR> destroyed, most of Spain came under Muslim rule. Emirate / Caliphate of Cordoba 750-<BR> 1013, First Taifa period (fragmentation) 1013-1086, Almoravid rule 1086-1147; Second <BR> Taifa period 1147-1160es; Almohad Dynasty 1160es-1269. By 1269 most of Muslim <BR> Spain had been conquered by the christian states; only the Emirate of Granda survived <BR> until 1492. Under Muslim rule, Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) was more urbanized and <BR> economically more advanced than most regions in Christian Europe, the most advanced <BR> regions of which only began to catch up in the 13th century. <BR> The pagan Svear and G&ouml;tar converted to Catholicism in the 12th century. The unification <BR> of Svear and G&ouml;tar into one unified kingdom took another century. <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#finland">Finland</A> was <BR> conquered in the 13th century. From 1395 to 1523, Sweden nominally was part of the <BR> Union of Kalmar, a dynastic union combining <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#denmark">Denmark</A>, Sweden and <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#norway">Norway</A>, <BR> dominated by <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#denmark">Denmark</A>. From 1434 onward, Sweden was, for most of the <BR> remainder of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.ht,l#unionofkalmar">Union of Kalmar</A>, in rebellion against the latter, and in 1523 <BR> restored independence. Economically Sweden was important because of her deposits <BR> in iron and copper; otherwise only marginally urbanized. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/scandinavia/xsweden.html">here</A> for more information <BR> In the 13th century the territory of modern Switzerland, while part of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hre">Holy Roman <BR> Empire</A>, was politically fragmented into a number of small territories, a number of which <BR> were Habsburg possessions. In 1291, the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden <BR> formed the Swiss Federation, for the purpose of fending off Habsburg ambitions to <BR> restore Habsburg rule over their lands. The Swiss were able to defend their lands; in <BR> the 14th century the federation took on new members, most notably Z&uuml;rich and <BR> Bern. In 1476-1477 the Swiss defeated the Dukes of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#burgundy">Burgundy</A> and established their fame <BR> as excellent soldiers; the mercenary trade became big business. In the early 16th <BR> century, the federation (Z&uuml;rich, Geneva) became center of the Swiss Reformation. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xswitzerland.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> The Teutonic Order was established in 1198 in Palestine, by a group of German Knights. <BR> In 1226 it was charged with defending Masovia against Prussian raids; the Order <BR> established a stronghold, nevr conquered in history, in the Marienburg, and proceeded <BR> with the subjugation of hitherto pagan <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#prussia">Prussia</A>. After this task was completed, crusades <BR> with the same object were launched against the pagan <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#lithuania">Lithuanians</A>. In 1236 the Livonian <BR> Order was integrated; in 1309 Eastern Pomerania acquired. The state of the Teutonic Order, <BR> in the 13th and 14th century, was a model in state organization. In 1385 the Lithuanians <BR> converted to Catholicism, depriving the Order of its raison d'etre. In 1410 the Order was <BR> defeated by a Polish-Lithuanian force in the Battle of Grunwald, and lost its military <BR> superiority. In 1453/1466 Royal Prussia seceded; in 1525 <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#livonia">Livonia</A> seceded, the remainder <BR> of the state of the Order was transformed into the Duchy in Prussia. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xteutorder.html">here</A> for more information <BR> Historically, eastern region of the <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#hungary">Hungarian Kingdom</A>, with a majority Vlach Orthodox <BR> and a minority Catholic Hungarian and Szekler population. German immigration from <BR> the 13th century. A Transylvanian diet formed in the 15th century. Following the disastrous <BR> Hungarian defeat in the Battle of Mohacs 1526, Transylvania became a principality, from 1541 to 1696 Ottoman vassall. <BR> Click <A HREF = "../../region/eceurope/xtransylvania.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Dynastic union comprising of the Kingdoms of <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#denmark">Denmark</A>, <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#norway">Norway</A>, <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#sweden">Sweden</A>, lasting <BR> from 1395 to 1523. Dominated by <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#denmark">Denmark</A>; <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#sweden">Sweden</A>, since 1437, struggled to get out <BR> of the union. The Danish-Norwegian union lasted on until 1814. <BR> The city of Venice was founded by refugees from the mainland fleeing a Barbaric <BR> invasion; developed into a city republic and thalassocracy from the 9th century onward. <BR> In the 13th century began to acquire possessions in <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#dalmatia">Dalmatia</A>, the Aegaean, Crete, Cyprus, <BR> on the Italian mainland (Terraferma). A major trade center. The Republic of Venice lost <BR> her independence in 1797. Click <A HREF = "../../region/italy/xvenice.html">here</A> for more detailed information. <BR> Hill country in western Britain, settled by a population of Celtic stock. Christian from the <BR> 5th century on (Iro-Scottish Church); conquered by the English in 1283. In the following <BR> decades, Welsh archers proved valuable to English armies. In 1535 Welsh autonomy <BR> was terminated. Click <A HREF = "../../region/britain/xwales.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Principality on the northern bank of the Lower Danube; emerged in the 14th century; <BR> recognized Ottoman sovereignty in 1496. In 1861 merged with Moldavia to form Kingdom <BR> of Romania. Population Orthodox Christian. Click <A HREF = "../../region/balkans/xwalachia.html">here</A> for more detailed information <BR> Created by the partitoning of the Frankish Kingdom in 843-880. In 887-888 West Frankish <BR> nobility established the principle of indivisibility of the kingdom, which since is known as <BR> <A HREF = "hdpolgeo.html#france">France</A>. <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? 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