ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : South Asia </title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2004-2006 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/wh/tlsasia.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/whchapters.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/biosasia.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Biographies </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on June 3rd 2004, last revised on June 23rd 2004 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : South Asia </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/wh/hdsasia.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "150"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> <A NAME = "afghanwars">Afghan Wars</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "amritsarmassacre">Amritsar Massacre</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "aryaninvasiontheory">Aryan Invasion Theory</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "assam">Assam</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "babrimosque">Babri Mosque</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "baluchistan">Baluchistan</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bangladesh">Bangladesh</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bengal">Bengal</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bhopaldisaster">Bhopal Disaster</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bhutan">Bhutan</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bijapur">Bijapur</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "bjp">BJP</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "bollywood">Bollywood</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "bombay">Bombay</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "caste">Castes</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> Ceylon <BR> <A NAME = "chalukya">Chalukya</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "chola">Chola Empire</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "congressparty">Congress Party</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "dalit">Dalit</A> <BR> <A NAME = "deccan">Deccan</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sultanateofdelhi">Delhi, Sultanate of</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "directrule">Direct Rule</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "dravidians">Dravidians</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "eic">East India Company</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "eastpakistan">East Pakistan</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "frenchindia">French India</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "gandhara">Gandhara</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "goa">Goa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "gujarat">Gujarat</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "guptaempire">Gupta Empire</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "gurkhas">Gurkhas</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "hindustan">Hindustan</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "borderconflict">India-China <BR> Border Conflict</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "indianconstitution">Indian Constitution</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "indiandarkages">Indian Dark Ages</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "economicreforms">India's <BR> Economic Reforms</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "indirectrule">Indirect Rule</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "indopakistaniwars">Indo-Pakistani Wars</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "indusvalleyciv">Indus Valley <BR> Civilization</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "islaminindia">Islam (in India)</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kashmir">Kashmir</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "khyberpass">Khyber Pass</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "kushan">Kushan</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "magadha">Magadha</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "malabarcoast">Malabar Coast</A> <BR> <A NAME = "marathas">Marathas</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "mughalempire">Mughal Empire</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "muslimleague">Muslim League</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "mysore">Mysore</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "nepal">Nepal</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "nonalignedmovement">Non-Aligned Movement</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "nwfp">North West <BR> Frontier Province</A> <BR> <A NAME = "nuclearbomb">Nuclear Bomb</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "operationbluestar">Operation Bluestar</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "pakistan">Pakistan</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "pala">Pala</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "pariahs">Pariahs</A> <BR> <A NAME = "partitionofindia"><Partition of India</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bofplassey">Battle of Plassey</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "portugueseindia">Portuguese India</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "protectionism">Protectionism</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "punjab">Punjab</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "raj">Raj, the</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "rajputs">Rajputs</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "satyagraha">Satyagraha</A> <BR> <A NAME = "sepoyrebellion">Sepoy Rebellion</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sindh">Sindh</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "singhalese">Singhalese</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "slavedynasty">Slave Dynasty</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "srilanka">Sri Lanka</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sterilization">Sterilization, Forced</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "suttee">Suttee</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tajmahal">Taj Mahal</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tamil">Tamil</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tibet">Tibet</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "urdu">Urdu</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "vijayanagar">Vijayanagar</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "westpakistan">West Pakistan</A> <BR><BR> </font></TD> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "500"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> fought between EIC India and Afghanistan <A HREF = "../../military/betwwars/afghanwar3.html">1838-1842</A>, British India and Afghanistan <BR> <A HREF = "../../military/19cen/afghanwar2.html">1878-1880</A>, <A HREF = "../../military/betwwars/afghanwar3.html">1919</A>. In the First Afghan War, the EIC attempt to turn Afghanistan into <BR> a satellite state (indirect rule) failed; the Second Afghan War was a facet of Anglo-Russian <BR> rivalry, the prime British object being to prevent Afghanistan falling under Russian <BR> influence; this was achieved. British India annexed the North West Frontier Province. The <BR> Third Afghan War was declared by Amanullah Khan of Afghanistan, who resented <BR> decades of pro-British rule in his country. It ended without major battles being fought, <BR> without border changes. <BR> on April 3rd 1919, c.10,000 assembled in a political protest meeting at Amritsar, Punjab. <BR> The organizers had failed to obtain permission; the British administration ordered the <BR> meeting to be disbanded. General Dwyer, commanding over 50 soldiers, ordered them <BR> to fire on the crowd; 379 were killed and c.1200 wounded. The British authorities in India <BR> regarded Dwyer's action as an overreaction; the Congress Party switched her goal from <BR> Home Rule to political independence. Dwyer was not convicted of any wrongdoing, and <BR> upon return to England, given a hero's welcome by the imperialist press. He was later <BR> assassinated (1940). see article from <A HREF = "http://www.postcolonialweb.org/india/history/colonial/massacre.html">Postcolonial Web</A> <BR> in the mid.19th century, Friedrich Max M&uuml;ller proposed the theory of an Aryan invasion <BR> of India, having taken place some time between 1800 and 1500 B.C. This theory is based <BR> on linguistic evidence. The Aryan invasion theory has been interpreted in identifying the <BR> lighter skinned Indians as descendents of these Aryan invaders, the darker-skinned <BR> 'Dravidians' as descendents of the pre-Aryan population of India. The theory since has <BR> been questioned, an Aryan migration (in waves) being more likely than an invasion-<BR> conquest. <BR> Indian province and historical region in the Brahmaputra valley. Language Assamese. The <BR> most important precolonial state was ruled by the Ahom Dynasty (1228-1824); the E.I.C. <BR> annexed Assam in 1824/1826. they introduced tea cultivation. In 1947 Assam became part <BR> of the Republic of India. see <A HREF = "http://www.assamtourism.org/history_assam.htm">History of Assam</A> from Assam Tourism <BR> in Ayodhia; constructed under Mughal Emperor Babur in the early 16th century, on the <BR> ruins of an older Hindu temple. Hindus believe the site to be the birthplace or Rama, an <BR> incarnation of Vishnu. Since Indian independence, the site has been the object of a <BR> conflict; in 1990 a BJP politician campaigned for the construction of a Rama temple where<BR> the mosque still was standing; the mosque was destroyed by a crowd in 1992; plans to <BR> construct a temple of Rama at the site were announced in 2002. The affair has been <BR> regarded as an indication of Hindu radicalism, threatening India's traditional religious <BR> tolerance. <BR> historical region in SW Pakistan and SE Iran; arid climate, mountainous, with deserts. The <BR> population is Muslimic; language baluchi. In the late 18th century and into the 19th c., <BR> Baluchistan was regarded independent; the British imposed indirect rule (treaties of 1841, <BR> 1876). The border separating Iranian Baluchistan and British Indian Baluchistan was <BR> established in 1870. In 1947, Mir Ahmad Yar Khan attempted to obtain a maximum of autonomy <BR> from Pakistan; Pakistani troops enforced integration into P. on Paskistani terms. see article <BR> from <A HREF = "http://www.geocities.com/pak_history/baluchistan.html">History of Pakistan</A> <BR> from 1947 to 1971 known as East Pakistan. Country name translates to Free Bengal. <BR> Obtained independence, with aid of India, in Third Indo-Pakistani War 1971. Located in <BR> delta region of Ganges, Brahmaputra; dominant religion Islam, dominant language Bengali. <BR> One of the poorest nations in Asia. see <A HREF = "../../region/india/xbangladesh.html">Bangladesh pages</A> at this site <BR> Historical state in India, acquired by the E.I.C. in the Battle of Plassey 1757. When British <BR> India was released into independence, West Bengal (capital Calcutta, modern Kolkata) <BR> became part of India, East Bengal became East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Language <BR> Bengali; West Bengal has a Hindu majority, Bangladesh is predominantly Muslim. <BR> a subsidiary of Union Carbide operated a chemical plant in Bhopal, India. In December <BR> 1984 toxic gases escaped, causeing the death of thousands, and injuring an estimated <BR> 50,000 people. The event showed inefficient supervision of industrial production by the <BR> Indian authorities as well as recklessness on the side of multinational enterprises which <BR> exploited the lack of environmental legislation etc. <BR> independent state located between India and China (Tibet) on the southern slope of the <BR> Himalayas; Kingdom, so remote that until 1962 no road connected it with the outside. <BR> see <A HREF = "../../region/india/xbhutan.html">Bhutan pages</A> at this site <BR> historical sultanate in western India, 1489-1686. The Portuguese wrested control of Goa <BR> from the Sultan of Bijapur. <BR> Bharatiya Janata Party (Indian Peoples' Party), formed in 1980; ruled India between 1989 <BR> and 2004. <BR> nickname for India's thriving movie industry, centered in Bombay (modern spelling <BR> Mumbai). <BR> originally a group of islands off India's west coast, which the Portuguese took in 1534, <BR> and presented to the English as part of a dowry in 1661. The first asset the E.I.C. held <BR> in India; capital of the E.I.C. domains in India until the latter was moved to Madras. <BR> Nicknamed the "Gate of India", the city of Bombay expanded greatly. Recently been <BR> renamed Mumbai. <BR> Vedic literature describes a society split in 4 castes - priests, warriors, merchants and <BR> craftsmen, and workers (in addition, there were the outcasts). The system has been further <BR> diversified; now there are over 1500 castes respectively sub-castes. The individual is <BR> encouraged not to marry outside of his caste, and not to seek employment/make a <BR> career outside of a range of occupations regarded suitable to his caste. <BR> see under Sri Lanka <BR> the name of an Indian dynasty which ruled in the Deccan from A.D. 550 to 750, and <BR> again from 973 to 1190. see article from <A HREF = "http://79.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CH/CHALUKYA.htm">EB 1911</A> <BR> state in southeastern India, between the 9th and 13th centuries; in the late 10th c. the <BR> Cholas conquered Sri Lanka; in the 11th c. they undertook an expedition to Sumatra <BR> conquering Srivijaya. see article from <A HREF = "http://www.thebharat.com/thebharatinfo/history/cholus.html">Vision of India</A> <BR> official name Indian National Congress; founded in 1885 with the aim of gaining a <BR> larger share of participation in the government of India. Later the aim was home rule; <BR> after the Amritsar Massacre full independence for India. Mohandas K. Gandhi, <BR> Congress Party member, was supported by the Congress Party organization in his <BR> non-violent non-cooperation campaign. Following independence, the Congress Party <BR> dominated Indian politics 1947-1989, and in the 2004 elections was returned to power. <BR> untouchable, pariah, outcaste <BR> highland plateau of southern India, extending between the eastern and the western <BR> Ghats. Triangular-shaped. Lesser densely populated than the Indus and Ganges river <BR> valleys further north. <BR> Muslim state in northern India, centered on the city of Delhi, 1210-1526 (although the <BR> succeeding Mughal Empire also was Muslim and centered on Delhi). Ruled by a <BR> succession of dynasties, the Mameluk or Slave Dynasty 1211-1290, the Khalji Dynasty <BR> 1290-1320, the Tughluq Dynasty 1320-1413, the (Afghan) Lodhi Dynasty 1413-1526. <BR> see article from <A HREF = "http://india.asinah.net/en/wikipedia/d/de/delhi_sultanate.html">Asinah</A> <BR> as opposed to indirect rule; situation in which the East India Company directly <BR> administered stretches of Indian territory. On the eve of the Sepoy Rebellion, the E.I.C. <BR> ruled about 40 % of India directly. <BR> expression connected with the Aryan Invasion Theory; applied to the people believed <BR> to have been the pre-invasion inhabitants of India. This theory combined linguistic <BR> observations with race theory. In this tradition, a certain segment of the Indian population, <BR> concentrated in southern India (the Tamil, Telugu etc.), but also including splinter groups <BR> in northern India, are referred to as Dravidians. <BR> founded as a company enjoying the monopoly (among English competition, that is) for <BR> trade east of the Cape of Good Hope, in 1600. Insignificant until England acquired <BR> Bombay in 1661. With the victorious Battle of Plassey 1757 the E.I.C. acquired Bengal; <BR> in the early 19th century the E.I.C. expanded rapidly, establishing her rule over India <BR> in a combination of direct and indirect rule. The Sepoy Rebellion of 1857-1858 resulted <BR> in bankrupcy of the E.I.C.; her assets were taken over by the British government. <BR> The Netherlands, France had similar companies. <BR> in 1947 the province of Bengal was split into West Bengal, which became a state <BR> within the Republic of India, and East Bengal, which, as East Pakistan, formed a <BR> part of Pakistan. In 1971 East Pakistan gained her independence from Pakistan and <BR> was renamed Bangladesh (Free Bengal). <BR> French East India companies acquired outposts in India in 1673/1674. In the Seven <BR> Years' War 1756-1763, France and the United Kingdom, with their respective allies, <BR> fought for dominance on the subcontinent. France lost; until 1954 it held on to a <BR> number of coastal possessions : Pondicherry (Capital), Karikal, Yanaon, Chandarnagar <BR> and Mahe. In 1954 annexed by India. see <A HREF = "../../region/india/xfrindia.html">French India pages</A> at this site <BR> historical region / state in Northwest Punjab / southeastern Afghanistan, centered on <BR> Taxila and Peshawar. Buddhist since the 3rd c. B.C., here Hellenism and Buddhism <BR> came into contact under Bactrian rule (3rd to 1st c. B.C.). <BR> dynasty / state in Afghanistan and N India 977-1186, named after their original <BR> stronghold, the city of Ghazni in Afghanistan. They held on to Ghazni until 1149, <BR> to Lahore until 1186. <BR> port city in western India; a part of Bijapur, the city was conquered by the Portuguese <BR> in 1510, who made it the administrative center of their colonial empire in the east. <BR> Occupied and annexed by India in 1961; Goa now forms a state in the Republic of <BR> India. <BR> historical region / modern state within the Republic of India. Dominant language <BR> Gujarati. Located in western India, on the coast of the Indian Ocean, bordering on <BR> Pakistan; Mohandas K. Gandhi was born here. <BR> Dynasty of rulers of Magadha (or parts of it), c.240-550 A.D.; Samudragupta (335-380) <BR> and Chandragupta II. (-413) greatly expanded the kingdom by conquest. <BR> people and dynasty (since 1769) in Nepal. The name is also applied for soldiers <BR> Britain used to recruit in Nepal; Gurkha regiments were and are famous for their <BR> loyalty and reliability. <BR> old name, in Western literature, for the Ganges valley (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar). <BR> Literally, the word is Persian for India (including Pakistan). <BR> In 1962, India and China fought a brief border conflict. China occupied, and still holds <BR> on to, Ladakh (a part of Kashmir) and most of Arunachal Pradesh, i.e, regions on the <BR> slopes of the Himalaya, bordering on Assam. The Chinese claim these territories to <BR> previously having been Chinese, and the territories in Arunachal Pradesh having been <BR> annexed by the British. see article from <A HREF = "http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-prc_1962.htm">globalsecurity.org</A> <BR> discussed 1946-1949, adopted in 1949. Established India as a federal, democratic <BR> state. The legal foundation of the World's largest democracy, functioning, despite a <BR> multitude of languages spoken in India, despite a high rate of illiteracy, since 1947. <BR> see <A HREF = "http://www.legalserviceindia.com/constitution/const_india1.htm">Making of the Constitution</A> from Legal Service India <BR> period in Indian history during which no script is known to have been used, i.e. <BR> between c.1900 B.C. and 513 B.C. (the Persian conquest of the Indus valley). <BR> Since independence, India pursued a protectionist economic policy; for instance, <BR> Coca Cola long was banned in the country. In the mid 1980es, first attempts were <BR> made to open India's market were made; in 1991-1992 India implemented a <BR> liberalizxation of her market. Among the most important success stories is India's <BR> software development center at Bangalore. Present pm of India Manmohan Singh <BR> is called the "father of India's economic reforms". <BR> a form of rule in which the E.I.C., or, in her succession, the administration of <BR> British India exercised influence on the administration of an Indian state by <BR> appointing an advisor to the respective Maharaja; there were over 500 such states, <BR> of various size, in which these advisors made the political decisions. When the <BR> British withdrew from India, these princely states were given the choice to join <BR> India or Pakistan. Jammu & Kashmir, Hyderabad, Mysore, Baluchistan were <BR> among the larger of these. <BR> fought 1948, 1965 and 1971, the main issue having been provided by Kashmir (see <BR> there). India and Pakistan have been rivals since independence; engaged in an <BR> arms race of their own (see nuclear bomb). <BR> flourished 2600-1500 B.C., best known sites Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa. Their cities <BR> were larger than those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, but did not contain edifices <BR> similarly spectacular as the ziggurats and pyramids. An Indus Valley script has <BR> been found, the only items we have being seal rings with very short strings of <BR> characters, yet undecoded; the youngest ring from about 1900 B.C. For a time it <BR> has been assumed that the Indus valley civilization had been destroyed by the <BR> Aryan invasion. The Indus Valley Civilization was discovered by archaeologists <BR> in the 1920es. <BR> Islam appeared in India with the conquest of Sindh in 712. Then little progress <BR> made until the Ghaznavids, who established control over the Punjab, and the <BR> establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi in 1210. The Mughal Dynasty was Muslim, <BR> as were many of her successor states, such as Mysore and Hyderabad. <BR> Muslim conqueror Mahmud of Ghazni was a radical iconoclast, who had many <BR> Hindu temples razed. Islam required tolerated religious 'minorities' to pay an <BR> additional tax, the per-capita-tax. As a result of a complex history, a minority <BR> of Muslims lived scattered all over India; only in Sindh, Punjab, the NWFP, <BR> Jammu & Kashmir and in Bengal did/do Muslims pose a majority. <BR> full name Jammu and Kashmir; princely state (indirect rule applied) until 1947. <BR> The founders of Pakistan, aware of the population structure of J.&K., assumed <BR> it to be undisputedly allocated to P. (K in Pakistan stands for Kashmir). The <BR> Maharaja, a Hindu, however opted for India. The country was split in the first <BR> Indo-Pakistani War 1948; both sides continued to claim the entire territory. <BR> In 1962 the Chinese occupied Ladakh (NE Kashmir). Further wars between India <BR> and Pakistan over Kashmir (1965, 1971) did not change the situation on the <BR> ground. <BR> pass in the Hindukush Mountains, east of Kabul, altitude 2200 m. Route taken <BR> by numerous invaders into India. <BR> invaders from Central Asia who established a state in NW India (Gandhara) <BR> extending into Afghanistan/Central Asia; flourished 150-150 A.D. Converted to <BR> Buddhism; believed to have facilitated the expansion of Buddhism into Central <BR> Asia. <BR> historical region / state in northern India, in the central Ganges valley. Origin of <BR> the Gupta Dynasty. Capital Pataliputra. Both Buddhism and Jainism originated <BR> here. <BR> coast in SW India, largely identical with the Indian state of Kerala. <BR> name of Hindu subjects of the Mughal Empire, who, lead by Shivaji, rebelled <BR> when the per-capita-tax was reintroduced by Aurangzeb. The rebellion was <BR> crushed; but after the death of Aurangzeb, the rebellion flared up again. The <BR> Marathas, organized in a federation of princes, became the dominant force in <BR> India, by the mid 18th century. They were defeated by Afghans in the Battles <BR> of Panipat 1813. The E.I.C. defeated the Maratha Federation in 1818; <BR> individual Maratha states continued to exist (indirect rule) until 1947. <BR> or Mogul Empire, 1526-1857, name derived from the Mongols. Founded by Timurid <BR> Babur, the Sultan of Kabul, who conquered Delhi in 1526. The Moghul Empire <BR> rose to become the foremost power in India. Akbar (1556-1605) abolished the <BR> per-capita-tax and attempted to introduce a synchretistic religion, kitab ul-illah. <BR> Under Aurangzeb it reached its largest extension; after his death, it rapidly <BR> declined. <BR> organization founded to represent the interests of India's Muslims, in 1906. <BR> Muhammad Ali Jinnah used the organization as a platform to campaign for <BR> a separate Muslim state in the 1940es, which was achieved with the <BR> establishment of Pakistan in 1947. <BR> Sultanate which splintered off the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb; <BR> Muslim dynasty, ruling over a majority Hindu population; fought several wars <BR> with the E.I.C. (4 wars 1767-1792); after the last defeat, a Hindu ruler was <BR> introduced by the E.I.C. <BR> Hindu Kingdom located between India and China (Tibet), on the southern slopes <BR> af the Himalayas. Established in 1768 by the Gurkha Dynasty; 1792-1910 a <BR> Chinese vassall; still independent. see the <A HREF = "../../region/india/xnepal.html">Nepal pages</A> at this site <BR> during the Cold War, an organization of mostly third world nations committed to <BR> a neutral course, neither siding with the U.S. nor with the Soviet Union. While <BR> India in her anti-imperialist foreign policy posed as a role model for many of <BR> the non-aligned nations, at the time when the non-aligned movement was created, <BR> India was perceived as a power pursuing expansionist policies of her own. <BR> annexed by British India in 1890-1893, after the Second Afghan War (1878-1880). <BR> Tribal areas of strategic value. <BR> India began with nuclear research in 1948, test-exploded the first device in 1974, <BR> declared herself a nuclear power in 1998. Pakistan, engaged in nuclear research <BR> since 1972, in 1998 responded to India's declaration by test-exploding her own <BR> nuclear bombs. see <A HREF = "http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/nuchist.htm">Nuclear History in India, Pakistan</A> from Vincent Ferraro's Homepage <BR> In 1984, Indian armed forces stormed the Golden Temple in Amritsar, where Sikhs <BR> accused by the government of propagating and organizing terrorism were holding out. <BR> Among the fatalities were both suspected terrorists and pilgrims who just happened to <BR> have visited the site. The event was perceived by the Indian Sikh community as a <BR> violation of their holiest sanctuary; shortly after, Indian PM Indira Gandhi was <BR> assassinated by her own Sikh bodyguards. <BR> created as a state made of the provinces of India with a Muslim majority when India <BR> was partitioned in 1947. P stands for Punjab, K for Kashmir, S for Sindh - the politicians <BR> who came up with that name did not think of (East) Bengal. Since independence, <BR> Pakistan was involved in 3 1/2 wars with her larger neighbour, India. Unlike India, <BR> democracy in Pakistan has been interrupted by a number of coups d'etat undertaken <BR> by army officers. see <A HREF = "../../region/india/xpakistan.html">Pakistan pages</A> at this site <BR> Dynasty ruling Bengal, or parts of it, between 750 and 1161, peaking 775-850 and <BR> 977-1027. <BR> untouchable, dalit, outcaste <BR> During late British colonial rule, the British administration tried to delay Indian <BR> independence by playing the minority Muslims against the majority Hindus. Gandhi <BR> and the Congress Party advocated for an unpartitioned independent India. However, <BR> Gandhi spent a significant part of the pre-independence years in a British jail. <BR> Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League were free to agitate for an independent <BR> Pakistan. In 1947, India and Pakistan were released into independence, within a <BR> year they were at war with each other, and a large stream of refugees crossed the <BR> new borders, from India into Pakistan and vice versa. <BR> Battle fought during the Seven Years War in India. The E.I.C. forces under Sir Robert <BR> Clive were the decisive element on the battlefield. The defeated Nawab of Bengal <BR> sent the keys to his kingdom to Clive; so E.I.C. rule in Bengal began. <BR> A number of fortified coastal possessions in India; Portugal acquired the first of them <BR> in 1510 (Afonso de Albuquerque). Seat of administration Goa. Goa also administrated <BR> P. possessions in Malacca, the Sunda archipelago, China, Arabia and on the African <BR> east coast. The decline began with the arrival of the Dutch in the Indian Ocean in <BR> 1598. Portugal held on to Goa, Davao and Diu into the 20th century; Portuguese <BR> India was occupied and annexed by India in 1961. see <A HREF = "../../region/india/xpindia.html">Portuguese India pages</A> <BR> at this site <BR> From independence until the economic reforms in 1991/1992, India pursued an <BR> economic policy of protectionism; a policy based on the experience that thriving <BR> Indian industries had been destroyed during a free market policy implemented by <BR> the colonial administration of India (textile industry; indigo plantations). During the <BR> years of protectionism, India's economy had sluggish growth rates and fell behind <BR> in technical development (India's car producer Hindustan Motors an example). <BR> historical region in NW (pre-partition) India, largely identical with Pentapotamia. <BR> In the early 19th century, a unified Sikh Kingdom of Punjab was established <BR> (capital Lahore); it was annexed by the E.I.C. in 1849. When British India was <BR> released into independence and partitioned, the larger part of the Punjab with <BR> Lahore was integrated into Pakistan, while the smaller eastern part, with Amritsar, <BR> was integrated into India. Punjab is the historical heartland of the Sikhs. <BR> in many Indian languages, raj (rajah) means king/royalty. The expression 'the raj' <BR> refers to British rule/the British administration of India 1858-1947. <BR> warrior caste from NW India, from the region which used to be called Rajputana <BR> and now is known as Rajastan; mainly Hindu, some Muslim. Rajputs were among <BR> the generals of Moghul Emperor Akbar, and alienated by his successor Aurangzeb <BR> who reintroduced the per-capita-tax; Rajputs were among the leaders of the <BR> Marathas. <BR> Gandhi's concept of non-violent non-cooperation (with the British authorities). <BR> also referred to as the Indian or Sepoy mutiny. The E.I.C. in the 1840es fought <BR> a series of wars; her territory expanded rapidly. The wars were fought with a <BR> force of British officers and native Indian soldiers, the latter referred to as Sepoys <BR> (Sipahis). In 1857 a new drill method was introduced, requiring soldiers to pull <BR> bullets out of cartridges with their teeth; the bullets had been greased in animal <BR> fat. Both Hindu and Muslim sepoys were horrified by that prospect; a mutiny <BR> broke out, which spread rapidly. The rebels committed massacres among the <BR> British residents; the E.I.C. went broke; British soldiers were called in to <BR> restore order (1858). The Sepoy Rebellion is regarded the first national-Indian <BR> event in the history of modern India. see <A HREF = "../../military/19cen/sepoy185758.html">article</A> at this site. <BR> historical region in the lower Indus valley. Islamic conquest in 712. Annexed <BR> by the E.I.C. in 1843. Became an integral part of Pakistan in 1947. Most <BR> important cities Karachi, Hyderabad. <BR> people and language on Sri Lanka. The Singhalese claim to be the original <BR> inhabitants of the island, as opposed to the Tamils who immigrated over the <BR> last 4 centuries. The Singhalese are predominantly Buddhist. <BR> centered on Delhi, 1211-1290, also referred to as the Mameluk Dynasty <BR> (not to be confused with that of Egypt). Muhammad of Gor conquered Delhi <BR> in 1206 and left his general, technically a slave, in command - Qutbuddin Aibak. <BR> Then Mohammad of Gor met his death while campaigning in Central Asia, and <BR> Aibak found himself in charge. <BR> large island located to the southeast of India. The Portuguese established control over <BR> the coastal sections in the 16th c., while the Kingdom of Kandy held the interior. The <BR> Dutch took coastal Ceylon from the Portuguese in 1639/1658 and ceded it to the <BR> British in 1802/1815. The British established tea plantations. A crown colony, merged <BR> with British India in 1858, separated again 1937, independent in 1948. Renamed Sri <BR> Lanka in 1972. Since 1983 Civil War (Tamil Tigers vs. central government). <BR> see <A HREF = "../../region/india/xslanka.html">Sri Lanka pages</A> at this site <BR> world media in the late 1960es and 1970es was focussed on the population explosion. <BR> The Gandhi administration was determined to cut population growth in India; a <BR> campaign was launched which was to inform the population about birth control, <BR> and the administration pushed for sterilization. This program was unpopular and cost <BR> Indira Gandhi the election of 1977. <BR> or Sati, a widow which joins her husband on his funeral pyre. In theory voluntary; in <BR> practice often in drugged condition. The practise was banned in the Bengal presidency <BR> in 1829. <BR> monument constructed between 1630 and 1648, by Moghul Emperor Shah Jehan, for <BR> his deceased wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Located in Agra. The idea was for a second such <BR> building, in black marble but otherwise identical, to be constructed next to it, as the <BR> burial site for Shah Jehan. It was never built. <BR> people living in SE India (Tamil Nadu) and on N Sri Lanka, speaking Tamil language. <BR> In the 19th and early 20th century, Tamil communities in Singapore, Malaysia etc. <BR> emerged, as a consequence of emigration. <BR> Buddhist theocracy in the Himalayas; in 1720 recognized Chinese sovereignty, but <BR> remained largely autonomous. In 1912 declared independence from China; regarded <BR> British sphere of influence. Chinese conquest 1950; in 1959 the Dalai Lama fled to <BR> India, where he established a residence in exile at Dharmsala. <BR> basically, Hindi language written in Persian alphabet. Originated in Central India, the <BR> language of many of India's Muslims and of the majority of the Muslims who in 1948 <BR> fled India and settled in Pakistan (mainly in Karachi, Hyderabad). <BR> historical state in S India; Hindu, founded in 1336; at the time of the Portuguese <BR> arrival dominant force in S. India; suffered major defeat in 1565; state terminated <BR> by Moghul conquest (Aurangzeb). <BR> expression referring to modern Pakistan during the years 1947-1971, when <BR> Bangladesh still was East Pakistan. <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> Surjit Mansingh, Historical Dictionary of India, New Delhi : Vision Books (1998) 2003 [G] </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> </DIV><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? 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