ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : South East Asia </title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2004-2006 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/wh/tlseasia.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/whchapters.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/bioseasia.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Biographies </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on June 11th 2004 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : South East Asia </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/wh/hdseasia.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "150"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> <A NAME = "aceh">Aceh</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "agentorange">Agent Orange</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "angkor">Angkor</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "annam">Annam</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "arakan">Arakan</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "asean">ASEAN</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "asianflu">Asian Flu</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ayutthaya">Ayutthaya</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "batavia">Batavia</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "boatpeople">Boat People</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "borobudur">Borobudur</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "brunei">Brunei</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "burma">Burma</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "burmaroad">Burma Road</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "cambodia">Cambodia</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "champa">Champa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "chenla">Chenla</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "cochinchina">Cochinchina</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "cultuurstelsel">Cultuurstelsel</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "dominotheory">Domino Theory</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "dei">Dutch East Indies</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "easttimor">East Timor</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "fms">Federated Malay States</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "flyingtigers">Flying Tigers</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "frindochina">French Indochina</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "friarocracy">Friarocracy</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "funan">Funan</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "hochiminhpath">Ho-Chi-Minh-Path</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> IMF-crisis <BR> <A NAME = "indonesia">Indonesia</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "johore">Johore</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "khmerempire">Khmer Empire</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "khmerrouge">Khmer Rouge</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "killingfields">Killing Fields</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "konfrontasi">Konfrontasi</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "krakatau">Krakatau</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "laos">Laos</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "luangprabang">Luang Prabang</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "majapahit">Majapahit</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "malacca">Malacca</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "malaya">Malaya</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "malaysia">Malaysia</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "mataram">Mataram</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "moluccas">Moluccas</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> Myanmar <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "nethnewguinea">Netherlands' <BR> New Guinea</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "northborneo">North Borneo</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "nvietnam">North Vietnam</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "pagan">Pagan</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "pegu">Pegu</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "philippines">Philippines</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "policeaction">Police Action</A> <BR><BR><BR> Portuguese Timor <BR> Sabah <BR> <A NAME = "sarawak">Sarawak</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "seato">SEATO</A> <BR><BR> Siam <BR><BR> <A NAME = "singapore">Singapore</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "southchinasea">South China Sea</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "svietnam">South Vietnam</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> Spice Islands <BR> <A NAME = "srivijaya">Srivijaya</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "straitssettlements">Straits Settlements</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sukhothai">Sukhothai</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sulu">Sulu</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tenasserim">Tenasserim</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "tetoffensive">Tet Offensive</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "thailand">Thailand</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tonkin">Tonkin</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tonkingulfincident">Tonkin Gulf Incident</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "transmigrasi">Transmigrasi</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "vietcong">Viet Cong</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "vietminh">Viet Minh</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "vietnamwar">Vietnam War</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "voc">V.O.C.</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "treatyofzaragoza">Treaty of Zaragoza</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> </font></TD> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "500"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> also spelled Acheh, Atjeh. Sultanate located on the northern tip of Sumatra. Became <BR> Muslimic in 1400. Has contested Sultanate of Malacca for control of the Malacca Straits. <BR> In the 1871 Sumatra Treaty, the British agreed to Aceh being allocated to the Dutch <BR> sphere of influence; Dutch attempt to conquest began in 1873; the Aceh wars ended only <BR> in 1908. Until 1949 part of the Dutch East Indies, since then of the Republic of Indonesia. <BR> In recent years, a separatist group fought Indonesian authorities. see Aceh page <BR> <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xaceh.html">at this site</A> <BR> highly toxic substance, defoliant, sprayed, during the Vietnam War, by US helicopters <BR> on the jungle forests of Vietnam so that they could observe movement of regular enemy <BR> forces and irregular Viet Minh guerilla on the ground. The Vietnamese soil, 30 years after <BR> the American pullout, still contains traces of Agent Orange; the substance continues to <BR> enter the food chain and cause physical harm. <BR> capital of the Khmer Empire (802-1431), then abandoned and overgrown by the jungle. <BR> Rediscovered by Frenchman Henri Mouhot in 1860. Both Buddhist and Hinduist temples. <BR> Vietnamese state established in 1558 by the partitioning of Vietnam; capital Hue. <BR> conquered Cochinchina in 1778, Tonkin in 1802 (thus reuniting Vietnam). Following the <BR> Franco-Chinese War 1884-1885 Annam and Tonkin became French protectorates; in 1887 <BR> merged with Cambodia and Cochinchina to form French Indochina. In 1954 split between <BR> North Vietnam and South Vietnam. see Vietnam pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xvietnam.html">at this site</A> <BR> historical Kingdom in western Burma, facing the Bay of Bengal. Partially Hindu, partially <BR> Muslim; capital Sittwe. Conquered and annexed by Burma in 1783, by the E.I.C. in 1826. <BR> Association of South-East Asian Nations, economic organization founded in 1967 <BR> (founding members) Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia. Played an <BR> important role in facilitating the fast economic development of the region, especially of <BR> Singapore, Thailand and Malaysia. <BR> also referred to as the IMF crisis, a term to describe the sudden fall of the exchange <BR> rates of the Thai Baht, South Korean Won and Indonesian Rupiah in 1997-1998. These <BR> nations had to apply for extraordinary loans from the IMF in order to overcome the crisis. <BR> historical capital of Thailand, pillaged and burnt by the Burmese in 1767. The Thai <BR> capital then was moved, Bangkok receiving that function in 1800. Numerous Buddhist <BR> temples in Ayutthaya. <BR> In 1619 the V.O.C. took control of the city of Jayakarta, renaming it Batavia. It was to be <BR> the capital of the V.O.C. colonial Empire until 1798, when the V.O.C. charter was revoked <BR> and the Dutch state took over the colony. Batavia then served as capital of the Dutch <BR> East Indies until 1949; in 1949, Indonesia became independent. Batavia, renamed <BR> Jakarta, still is capital. <BR> Following the Vietnamese invasion of (Chinese ally) Cambodia in 1979, the PR China <BR> retaliated by fighting a border war with Vietnam. Vietnam again retaliated by expelling the <BR> country's minority of ethnic Chinese, who, on fragile vessels, tried to escape across the <BR> sea, being victimized by pirates. Many were taken up by bypassing vessels and ended <BR> up in refugee camps; some were lucky, were granted asylum in western countries. <BR> largest Buddhist temple site on earth, located on Java, near Yogyakarta; constructed in <BR> 770-825. <BR> Sultanate located on the northern coast of Borneo (Kalimantan); converted to Islam in <BR> the late 14th century. Used to control the entire northern coast of Borneo; ceded Sarawak <BR> to James Brooke in 1842, Sabah to the British Chartered North Borneo Company in <BR> 1877/1888, Brunei's territory being reduced to the core. Brunei became a British <BR> protectorate. 1929 oil was found in Brunei. In 1984 Brunei declared independence, due <BR> to her oil revenues, one of the richest countries in Asia. <BR> historic kingdom, established in 1531. In 1755 the Konbaung Dynasty replaced the <BR> earlier Toungoo Dynasty and began a policy of expansion; in 1767 the Thai capital <BR> Ayutthaya was sacked, in 1784 Arakan was conquered. In three Anglo-Burmese Wars <BR> (1824-1826, 1852, 1885-1886) the country gradually was taken over by the E.I.C. <BR> respectively her successor, British India. In 1937, Burma administratively was <BR> separated from British India; during WW II occupied by the Japanese (1942-1945); <BR> independent in 1948. Democracy terminated in 1962, the country was declared a <BR> People's Republic in 1974, renamed Myanmar in 1990. see Burma pages <BR> <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xburma.html">at this site</A> <BR> during World War II, since 1940 the only supply line left for the Nationalist Chinese <BR> administration in Chungking (Chiang Kai Shek). When the Japanese occupied <BR> Burma in 1942, they cut the Burma Road; her function was taken over by the <BR> Flying Tigers, until the road was reopened. <BR> Following the destruction of the Khmer Empire in 1431, the core region went through <BR> centuries of decline, during which it was a Thai vassall. In 1807 it also became a <BR> Vietnamese vassall. In 1863 declared a French protectorate; in 1887 included in <BR> French Indochina, independent kingdom in 1954; king ousted in military coup 1970; <BR> that year Vietnam War extended into Cambodia and Laos; in 1975 Khmer Rouge <BR> took over, committed genocide among their own people (Killing Fields); in 1979 <BR> Vietnamese invasion, Khmer Rouge ousted, in 1993 democratization. see <BR> Cambodia pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xcambodia.html">at this site</A> <BR> historical Hindu Kingdom located in southern-central Vietnam; from the 2nd to the <BR> 18th century; capital Indrapura (modern Hue); in 1472 reduced to southernmost <BR> Vietnam (Cochinchina) which was conquered by Annam in 1778. see Vietnam <BR> pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xvietnam.html">at this site</A> <BR> historical kingdom in modern Cambodia, established in 550, later partitioned in two. <BR> Absorbed by the Khmer Empire. <BR> historical region around the Mekong Delta; contested between Cambodia and <BR> Champa, in 1778 conquered by Annam, French protectorate in 1859, capital <BR> Saigon. Became part of French Indochina in 1887, of independent South Vietnam <BR> in 1954. see Vietnam pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xvietnam.html">at this site</A> <BR> Dutch for culture system, introduced in the Dutch East Indies in 1830; compelling <BR> the native peasants to grow crops determined by the government, for export. <BR> a theory suggesting that the Communist world revolution would proceed by <BR> toppling governments in the developing nations, one by one, like in a domino <BR> system, the last countries to fall being the advanced nations of the west. The <BR> theory was used to justify US interference in the Vietnam War. <BR> what is modern Indonesia. Taken over by the Dutch government from the V.O.C. <BR> in 1798; remained Dutch until WW II (Japanese administration 1942-1945); in <BR> 1945-1949 struggle for independence; in 1949 released into independence, <BR> except for Netherlands' New Guinea, which the Dutch held on to until 1963. <BR> The eastern part of the island of Timor. The Portuguese had established them- <BR> selves on Timor in 1526 and held on to the northern part of the island during <BR> V.O.C. rule over most of the archipelago. The population is Catholic. East <BR> Timor was administrated as a dependency of Goa or Macau. In 1975 when <BR> Portugal withdrew from most of her colonies, Indonesia occupied and annexed <BR> the country. In 1996, East Timorese independence activists <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/bioseasia.html#horta">Jose Ramos Horta</A> <BR> and Bishop <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/bioseasia.html#belo">Carlos Felipe Ximenes Belo</A> were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize; <BR> in 1999 an international force moved in, ending Indonesian occupation. In 2002 <BR> East Timor elected her first president. see East Timor pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xetimor.html">at this site</A>. Federation of technically independent Malay principalities under British influence. <BR> Pahang, Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan. Established in 1895. Became <BR> increasingly important due to tin mines and rubber plantations. In 1946 dissolved, <BR> integrated into Malayan Federation. see Malaysia pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xmalaysia.html">at this site</A> <BR> unit of British and American pilots who in 1942-1944 flew from India to <BR> Chungking and back to supply the Nationalist Chinese government (Chiang Kai <BR> Shek). Necessary, because the Japanese had cut the Burma Road. They had <BR> to fly over extremely difficult terrain, mountains over 4000 m. Credited for keeping <BR> Nationalist China in the war. <BR> created in 1887 by merging the French protectorates of Cambodia, Cochinchina, <BR> Annam and Tonkin. Capital Saigon. In 1893, Laos was added. Dissolved in 1954 <BR> when Cambodia, Laos, North, South Vietnam were released into independence. <BR> see French Indochina pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xfrindochina.html">at this site</A> <BR> literally, the rule of friars, an expression used to decribe the situation in the <BR> Philippines prior to 1863. Until 1821, the Philippines were administrated as part <BR> of Mexico; following Mexican independence they were a forgotten corner of the <BR> Spanish Empire. Franciscan and Dominican friars controlled politics in the <BR> country until reforms set in in 1863. <BR> Historical state in modern Cambodia, from the first century A.D. to 613. In the <BR> 3rd century, Hinduism was introduced; in c.550, Chenla broke away; in 613 <BR> Funan was conquered by Chenla. <BR> Communist Vietnamese supply line to the Viet Minh-controlled areas in South <BR> Vietnam during the Vietnam War, running through jungle territory on the Laotian <BR> respectively Cambodian side of the border. In 1970 U.S. President Johnson <BR> ordered the war to be extended into Laos and Cambodia in order to cut the <BR> supply lines; the aim was not achieved. <BR> see under Asian Flu <BR> formerly Dutch East Indies; independence proclaimed in 1945, recognized by NL <BR> in 1949. The world's largest Muslim state. see Indonesia pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xindonesia.html">at this site</A> <BR> Muslimic Sultanate on the southern tip of the Malay peninsula. The Sultans of <BR> Malacca, once ousted from their residential town, established johore as their <BR> new residence (1511). In the 19th century a British ally; ceded Singapore to <BR> Britain in 1819. Part of the Malaysian Federation since 1957/1963. <BR> historical empire established in 802, centered on Angkor. Hinduist-Buddhist. <BR> controlled Cambodia, the Mekong Valley, much of Thailand and Laos. Lost <BR> ground to the Thai in the 13th/14th centuries, was overthrown by the Thai in <BR> 1431. Successor state Cambodia. see Cambodia pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xcambodia.html">at this site</A> <BR> founded as a Cambodian communist guerilla organization; in 1975 they took <BR> over government in Cambodia and pursued an isolationist policy of implementing <BR> Agro-Communism. They depopulated the cities and commutted genocide <BR> among their own people (see Killing Fields). Ousted by the Vietnamese <BR> invasion of 1979; the Khmer Rouge returned into the jungle, resumed guerilla <BR> warfare. Leader Pol Pot died in 1998; his followers surrendered when promised <BR> amnesty. <BR> title of a movie on the Cambodian genocide, inflicted by the Khmer Rouge <BR> regime under Pol Pot on their own people 1975-1979. An estimated 1 million <BR> Cambodians were killed, roughly one seventh of the entire population. <BR> Bahasa Indonesia expression for confrontation; a policy pursued by the <BR> Sukarno administration against adjacent territories still under colonial ad- <BR> ministration in 1963-1965 (Sarawak, N. Borneo, Singapore, Ndl. New Guinea, <BR> Port. Timor), with the aim of annexing these territories (Ndl. New Guinea was <BR> annexed in 1963, Portuguese Timor in 1975). The policy was officially <BR> terminated in consequence of the Indonesian coup d'etat in 1965. <BR> volcanic island located in the straits separating Java and Sumatra. Erupted <BR> in 1883; the strongest volcanic eruption in recent history. <BR> country in SE Asia; in pre-colonial times split into the Kingdoms of Luang <BR> Prabang, Vientiane, Champassak; French protectorate in 1893, part of <BR> French Indochina, independent since 1954, People's Republic since 1975. <BR> see Laos pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xlaos.html">at this site</A> <BR> most important of the historic kingdoms that were merged into the French <BR> protectorate of Laos in 1893. The Kingdom of Luang Prabang was established <BR> in 1690 and became French in 1893. When the Vichy administration was <BR> ousted in France following the Normandy invasion in 1944, the Japanese in <BR> Indochina placated the King of Luang Prabang, toying with the concept of <BR> Laos as a Japanese satellite state. <BR> Hindu Empire centering on Java, 1293 to c.1500, temporarily ruling an area <BR> far beyond Java. Peaked in the 14th century. <BR> dominant trading city on the Malacca Straits prior to the foundation of Singapore. <BR> Founded in 1396, converted to Islam in 1414, conquered by the Portuguese <BR> in 1511, by the Dutch in 1641, ceded to the British in 1824, then part of the <BR> Straits Settlements until 1946, since part of Malaya/Malaysia. Modern spelling <BR> Melaka. <BR> until into the 20th century, the Malay peninsula politically was divided into a <BR> number of Muslim sultanates, some Thai vassalls (until 1909). They became <BR> British protectorates, some of them in 1895 joining the Federated Malay States. <BR> In 1946 the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States were dissolved <BR> and the states of the Malay peninsula, except for Singapore, established the <BR> Malaya Federation, which gained independence in 1957. In 1963 Singapore, <BR> Sarawak and North Borneo (Sabah) were included (the country renamed <BR> Malaysia); Singapore was pushed out in 1965. see the Malaya pages <BR> <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xmalaysia.html">at this site</A> <BR> consisting of two parts, Malaya and Sarawak-Sabah (North Borneo), created <BR> in 1963 when Sarawak and North Borneo were threatened by Indonesia's <BR> Konfrontasi policy. see the Malaya pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xmalaysia.html">at this site</A> <BR> Muslim Sultanate that dominated Java in 1586-1755, peaked in the 17th century. <BR> Partitioned in 1755 in Surakarta, Yogyakarta. <BR> group of small and medium-size islands located in NE Indonesia, the source of the <BR> best spices (pepper, cloves, nutmeg). In the 16th century contested between loical <BR> rulers, the Portuguese and Spanish; since 1623 dominated by the Dutch (V.O.C. <BR> until 1798, Dutch East Indies until 1949). Many Moluccand feared Javanese <BR> domination after Indonesian independence, emigrated to NL, where a South <BR> Moluccan exile govt. was established (Maluku Selatan). <BR> In 1989 the Burmese military junta held democratic elections which were won by <BR> the political opposition. Then opposition leaders were arrested, the country renamed <BR> Myanmar, and the election results conveniently forgotten. see under Burma. <BR> western half of New Guinea, neglected by the Dutch until into the late 19th century <BR> when Germany and Britain claimed part of the island. When Indonesia became <BR> independent in 1949, the NL held on to Ndl. New Guinea, until 1963, when the <BR> land was annexed by Indonesia and renamed Irian Jaya. There is a separatist <BR> movement striving for independence for 'West Papua'. <BR> In 1877 the British Chartered North Borneo Company leased Sabah from the Sultan <BR> of Brunei; in 1889 Britain proclaimed a protectorate over North Borneo. In 1963 <BR> North Borneo, now called Sabah, was integrated into Malaysia. Temporarily <BR> claimed by both the Philippines and Indonesia (Konfrontasi policy). see North <BR> Borneo pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xnborneo.html">at this site</A> <BR> historically, Vietnam had been partitioned in three - Tonkin, Annam, Cochinchina. <BR> the first time the country was partitioned in two halves by the Potsdam Conference <BR> for the purpose of organizing the disarmament of the Japanese - in the south by <BR> the British, in the north by the Nationalist Chinese. Both left, handing the country <BR> over to the French. After the Viet Cong defeated the French at Dien Bien Phu <BR> in 1954, the French withdrew; the Paris Peace Conference partitioned Vietnam <BR> in a communist north and a 'democratic' south. North Vietnam strove for <BR> national unification, supported guerillas in the south. The US got involved <BR> (Domino Theory, Vietnam War). In 1973 the US withdrew her forces, in 1975 <BR> communist forces took the southern capital Saigon, Vietnam was reunified. <BR> see Vietnam pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xvietnam.html">at this site</A> <BR> historical kingdom in Burma, 1044-1287, Buddhist; crushed by Mongol <BR> invasion. Aftward it disintegrated into a Shan and a Mon state. see Pagan page <BR> <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/pagan.html">at this site</A> <BR> historical kingdom in Burma, located in the Irawaddy Delta. Emerged as a <BR> successor to Pagan after the Mongol invasion of 1287. Buddhist. A coup in <BR> 1758 established a new dynasty - the Konbaung Dynasty. The country was <BR> renamed Burma, the capital moved to Rangoon. see Pegu page <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/pegu.html">at this site</A> <BR> island group discovered by Magellan in 1521; named after (then future) King <BR> Philip II. of Spain; although located in the Portuguese sector according to the <BR> Treaty of Zaragoza, conquered for Spain by <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/bioseasia.html#legazpi">Miguel de Legazpi</A> in 1565-1571. <BR> Administrated as part of New Spain (Mexico) until 1821, then a remote part <BR> of the Spanish Colonial Empire (Friarocracy). Reforms began in the 1860es. <BR> Independence movement; then lost to U.S. in Spanish-American War in 1898. <BR> Promised independence by US administration in 1936; granted independence <BR> in 1946. Member SEATO, ASEAN. see Philippines pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xphilippines.html">at this site</A> <BR> expression used in/by the Netherlands for operations to restore Dutch rule in <BR> Indonesia / the Dutch East Indies. temporarily successful; yet a Pyrrhic victory. <BR> In 1949 the Dutch withdrew, recognizing Indonesian independence. <BR> see under East Timor <BR> see under North Borneo <BR> stretch of land on the NW coast of Borneo. In 1842, <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/bioseasia.html#jamesbrooke">James Brooke</A> was <BR> appointed Rajah of Sarawak by the Sultan of Brunei; the (thinly populated) <BR> principality remained in the possession of the Brooke family, under British <BR> protection, until 1946, when the British took over, Sarawak becoming a crown <BR> colony. In 1963 Sarawak was integrated into Malaysia. see Sarawak page <BR> <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xsarawak.html">at this site</A> <BR> South East Asian Treaty Organization, established in 1954, founding members <BR> Australia, France, U.K., U.S.A., New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand <BR> name of the Thai state between 1592 and 1949. The adjectives Thai and <BR> Siamese are often used synonymously. See under Thailand <BR> city founded on land ceded by the Sultan of Johore to Britain in 1819, by <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/bioseasia.html#raffles">Sir <BR> Stamford Raffles</A>. Became the major trading hub of Southeast Asia. Part of <BR> the Straits Settlements 1819-1946, in 1963 integrated into Malaysia, in 1965 <BR> compelled to declare independence. Founding member of ASEAN in 1967, it <BR> became the most successful economy of SE Asia. Ethnically mixed population <BR> with ethnic Chinese majority, in a Malay environment. see Singapore pages <BR> <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xsingapore.html">at this site</A> <BR> during the colonial era, SE Asia provided spices to European markets, and <BR> little else of interest. A major function of SE Asia was her role as a transit <BR> region on the way to China, with her more desired products and market. So <BR> the geographical expression 'South China Sea' expresses the desire of 16th <BR> to 19th century European merchants rather than political ownership. In the <BR> 20th century, China has established a claim over the entire South China Sea, <BR> including all her islands, almost until the coasts of the adjacent countries. This <BR> claim conflicts with Vietnamese, Malaysian, Philippine and Taiwanese claims <BR> over part of the area. <BR> historically, Vietnam had been partitioned in three - Tonkin, Annam, Cochinchina. <BR> the first time the country was partitioned in two halves by the Potsdam Conference <BR> for the purpose of organizing the disarmament of the Japanese - in the south by <BR> the British, in the north by the Nationalist Chinese. Both left, handing the country <BR> over to the French. After the Viet Cong defeated the French at Dien Bienm Phu <BR> in 1954, the French withdrew; the Paris Peace Conference partitioned Vietnam <BR> in a communist north and a 'democratic' south. North Vietnam strove for <BR> national unification, supported guerillas in the south. The US got involved <BR> (Domino Theory, Vietnam War). In 1973 the US withdrew her forces, in 1975 <BR> communist forces took the southern capital Saigon, Vietnam was reunified. <BR> see Vietnam pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xvietnam.html">at this site</A> <BR> see under Moluccas <BR> historical kingdom centered on Palembang, Sumatra. Thrived from the 7th to the <BR> 12th century. Controlled traffic through the Malay archipelago. In 1017, 1025 <BR> raided by the Indian Cholas. Buddhist temples, monks were recorded there. <BR> see Srivijaya page <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/srivijaya.html">at this site</A> <BR> British possessions in and around the Malacca Straits (Penang since 1786, <BR> Singapore since 1819, Malacca since 1824, temporarily including the Cocos <BR> and Christmas Islands, and Labuan (off North Borneo). Dissolved in 1946. <BR> see Straits Settlements pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xstraits.html">at this page</A> <BR> established as the first independent Thai state in 1283 with center in Chiang <BR> Mai, N Thailand. The Thai had recently migrated into the area. In the early <BR> 14th century they expanded at the expense of the Khmer, reaching the sea. <BR> Soon after, Sukhothai declined, being eclipsed by the Thai state of Ayutthaya. <BR> see the Sukhothai page <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/sukhothai.html">at this site</A> <BR> Muslim Sultanate founded in 1457, hostile to Spanish administration of the <BR> Philippines (since 1567); in 1877 Germany, the Dutch and English recognized <BR> the Spanish claim over Sulu; in 1898 US occupation; integrated into <BR> Philippines. For several decades Moro secessionist movement. see Sulu <BR> page <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xsulu.html">at this site</A> <BR> used to be a Thai province in the west of the isthm of Kra. Annexed by the E.I.C. <BR> in 1826; became part of British Burma. Still part of Burma/Myanmar. <BR> Viet Cong offensive versus South Vietnamese, US, allied forces in 1968. Took <BR> the latter by surprise; Viet Cong made it to the rof of the US embassy in <BR> Saigon, destroying the confidence the US military leadership wanted to <BR> spread in the development of the war. <BR> Thai people, after the destruction of Nanchao (in SW China) migrated into modern <BR> Thailand in the 13th century, established Sukhothai, Ayutthaya state. A. in the <BR> 16th century became Kingdom of Siam (until 1949), then renamed Thailand. <BR> Buddhist, never under colonial rule; introduced reforms (constitutional monarchy) <BR> in 1932, member SEATO, ASEAN. see Thailand pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xthailand.html">at this site</A> <BR> historical kingdom in Vietnam, established by the partitioning of Vietnam in 1558, <BR> conquered by Annam in 1802; Chinese vassall, Confucianist; ceded by China to <BR> France after Franco-Chinese War 1884-1885, part of French Indochina 1887-1954. <BR> Then core region of North Vietnam. see Vietnam pages <A HREF = "../../region/seasia/xvietnam.html">at this site</A> <BR> 1964, inconclusive intelligence which was interpreted as a North Vietnamese <BR> attack on a US naval vessel in the Gulf of Tonkin; US president L.B. Johnson <BR> ordered U.S. forces in Vietnam to attack N. Vietnamese territory. <BR> Within Indonesia, roughly half the population lives on Java. Transmigrasi <BR> (transmigration) refers to a policy of resettlement, from the densely populated <BR> islands of Java and Madoera to the less densely populated islands (Sumatra, <BR> Kalimantan etc.). <BR> organization of S. Vietnamese communist insurgents, supported by communist <BR> N. Vietnam 1954-1975. The U.S. supported the S. Vietnamese administration <BR> and, without ever declaring war, got involved in the Vietnam War. <BR> organization formed as a League for Vietnamese independence in 1941, <BR> communist, led by Nguyen Tat Thanh (= <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/bioseasia.html#hochiminh">Ho Chi Minh</A>). Declared independence <BR> from France in 1945, fought the French in insurgency 1945-1954, defeated the <BR> French in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu 1954, when (communist) N. Vietnam <BR> achieved independence. <BR> began as an insurgency in S. Vietnam; the U.S., concerned about the spread <BR> of communism (Domino Theory), got involved; the insurgents were supported <BR> by N.Vietnam; in 1964 (Tonkin Gulf Incident) expanded operations onto N. <BR> Vietnamese territory, without formally declaring war. Tet Offensive 1968 <BR> shattered public confidence in the conduct of the war. In 1970 war theatre <BR> extended into Laos, Cambodia. In 1973 the U.S. withdrew from Vietnam; in <BR> 1975 Laos, Cambodia, S. Vietnam fell to communist insurgents. <BR> Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie ((Dutch) United East India Company). <BR> established as a monopolist company in the Dutch Republic 1602; est. her <BR> headquarters in Batavia in 1619; controlled trade in the Malay archipelago; <BR> temporarily also the Cape Colony, the Malabar Coast, Ceylon, Formosa. Her <BR> charter was withdrawn, her assets taken over by the Dutch government in <BR> 1798. see V.O.C. page <A HREF = "../../region/lowcountries/voc.html">at this site</A> <BR> signed in 1525; eastern pendant to Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), separating <BR> a Spanish and Portuguese sphere of influence. It left all of East Asia in the <BR> Portuguese sector; the Spanish negotiated an exception for the Philippines, <BR> contested Portuguese control of the Moluccas and entered into trade with <BR> China. <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> </DIV><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? 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