ÿþ<html> <head> <title> WHKMLA : Historical Dictionaries : Sub-Saharan Africa</title> <!-- copyright Alexander Ganse, 2004 --> </head> <body bgcolor="lightblue" text="black" link="blue" vlink="red" alink="brown"> <style> <!-- A{ font-weight: bold; font-size: 10pt; font-face: arial; } --> </style> <DIV align ="center"> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../index.html"> <img src = "../../whkmla2.jpg" border = "0"></a></TD></TR></TABLE> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD width = "150" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Timeline </b></font></TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/wh/tlssafrica.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowleft.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../timelines/whchapters.html"> <img src = "../banhistdic.jpg" border = "0"> </TD> <TD width = "36" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <A HREF = "../../biographies/wh/biossafrica.html"> <img src = "../../region/arrowright.gif" width = "36" height = "36" border = "0"> </a></TD> <TD width = "100" height = "36" align = "center" valign = "center"> <font size = "2" face = "arial"><B> Biographies </b></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <font size = "3" face = "arial"><B><i>First posted on July 22nd 2004, last revised on September 13th 2004 </i></b></font><BR><BR><BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "center" valign = "center" width = "900"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "5"><B> Historical Dictionaries : Sub-Saharan Africa </B></font> <BR> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"><i> http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histdic/wh/hdssafrica.html </i></font> </B></font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "150"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> <A NAME = "abyssinia">Abyssinia</A> <BR> <A NAME = "adal">Adal</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "adamawa">Adamawa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "afrikaans">Afrikaans</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "anc">ANC</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "angola">Angola</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "apartheid">Apartheid</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "asante">Asante</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ashanti">Ashanti</A> <BR> <A NAME = "askari">Askari</A> <BR> <A NAME = "assegai">Assegai</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "axum">Axum</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bagirmi">Bagirmi</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bantu">Bantu</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bantustans">Bantustans</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "basutoland">Basutoland</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bechuanaland">Bechuanaland</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "belgiancongo">Belgian Congo</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "benin">Benin</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "berlinconference">Berlin Conference</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "biafra">Biafra</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "boers">Boers</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "boerwar">Boer War</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "bornu">Bornu</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "botswana">Botswana</A> <BR> <A NAME = "britishcentralafrica">British Central Africa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "britisheastafrica">British East Africa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "buganda">Buganda</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "burkinafaso">Burkina Faso</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "burundi">Burundi</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "cameroon">Cameroon</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "cannibalism">Cannibalism</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "capecolony">Cape Colony</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "capeofgoodhope">Cape of Good Hope</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "capetocairo">Cape to Cairo</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "capeverde">Cape Verde</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "car">Central African <BR> Republic</A> <BR> <A NAME = "chad">Chad</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "comoros">Comoros</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "congofreestate">Congo Free State</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "drcongo">Congo, DR</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "congolesecivilwar">Congolese Civil War</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "congoreformassociation">Congo Reform <BR> Association</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "rcongo">Congo, Republic of</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "dahomey">Dahomey</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "dakartodjibouti">Dakar to Djibouti</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "djibouti">Djibouti</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "eastafricancommunity">East African <BR> Community</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "guineaeq">Equatorial Guinea</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "eritrea">Eritrea</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ethiopia">Ethiopia</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "fashodacrisis">Fashoda Crisis</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "fernandopoo">Fernando Poo</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "fea">French <BR> Equatorial Africa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "frenchsomalicoast">French Somali Coast</A> <BR> <A NAME = "frenchsudan">French Sudan</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "frenchwestafrica">French West Africa</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "fulani">Fulani</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "fulanijihad">Fulani Jihad</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "futadjalon">Futa Djalon</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "gabon">Gabon</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "gambia">Gambia</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "geez">Ge'ez</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "gea">German East Africa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ghana">Ghana</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "goldcoast">Gold Coast</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "goree">Goree</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "greattrek">Great Trek</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "guinea">Guinea</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "guineabissau">Guinea Bissau</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "heherebellion">Hehe Rebellion</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sthelena">St. Helena</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "hererorebellion">Herero Rebellion</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ivorycoast">Ivory Coast</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "johannesburg">Johannesburg</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "jubaland">Jubaland</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kaarta">Kaarta</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kanem">Kanem</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "katanga">Katanga</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kenya">Kenya</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kilwa">Kilwa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kimberley">Kimberley</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "kongo">Kongo, Kgd. of</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ladoenclave">Lado Enclave</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "lagos">Lagos</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "lesotho">Lesotho</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "liberia">Liberia</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "lunaticexpress">Lunatic Express</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "lunda">Lunda</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "madagascar">Madagascar</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "majimaji">Maji Maji Rebellion</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "malawi">Malawi</A> <BR> <A NAME = "mali">Mali</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "matabele">Matabele</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "maumau">Mau Mau</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "mauritius">Mauritius</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "merina">Merina</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "mfecane">Mfecane</A> <BR> <A NAME = "missionaries">Missionaries</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "mocambique">Mo&ccedil;ambique</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "mombasa">Mombasa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "namibia">Namibia</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "natal">Natal</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "niger">Niger</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "nigeria">Nigeria</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "nokcivilization">Nok Civilization</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "northernnigeria">Northern Nigeria</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "northernrhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "nyasaland">Nyasaland</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "oau">OAU</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ogaden">Ogaden</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "oilrivers">Oil Rivers Colony</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "orangerivercolony">Orange River Colony</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "oranjevrijstaat">Oranje Vrijstaat</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "oubangichari">Oubangui-Chari</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "oyo">Oyo</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "portugueseguinea">Portuguese Guinea</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "quatrecommunes">Quatre Communes</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "quinine">Quinine</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "reunion">Reunion</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "rhodesia">Rhodesia</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "riomuni">Rio Muni</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ruandaurundi">Ruanda-Urundi</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "rubbertax">Rubber Tax</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "rwanda">Rwanda</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "rwandangenocide">Rwandan Genocide</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sahelfamine">Sahel Famine</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "scrambleforafrica">Scramble for Africa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "segou">Segou</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "senegal">Senegal</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sierraleone">Sierra Leone</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sofala">Sofala</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "sokoto">Sokoto</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "somalia">Somalia</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "somaliland">Somaliland</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "songhai">Songhai</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "southafrica">South Africa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "southernrhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "swa">South West Africa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "soweto">Soweto</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "spanishguinea">Spanish Guinea</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "swahilicoast">Swahili Coast</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "swaziland">Swaziland</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tanganyika">Tanganyika</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tanzania">Tanzania</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "togo">Togo</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "saotome">Sao Tome and Principe</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "timbuctu">Timbuctu</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "transvaal">Transvaal</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "tsetsefly">Tsetse Fly</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "tuareg">Tuareg</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "uganda">Uganda</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "ujamaa">Ujamaa</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "uppervolta">Upper Volta</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "wadai">Wadai</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "westafricancurencyunion">West African <BR> Currency Union</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "witwatersrand">Witwatersrand</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "zaire">Zaire</A> <BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "zambia">Zambia</A> <BR><BR> <A NAME = "zanzibar">Zanzibar</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "zar">Z.A.R.</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <A NAME = "zulu">Zulu</A> <BR><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> </font></TD> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "500"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> named after the Danakil abyss; see under Ethiopia. <BR> or Awdal, Islamic Sultanate centered in modern Somaliland which emerged in the <BR> early 16th century, and in the 1540es threatened to conquer christian Ethiopia. By <BR> that time the Portuguese established contact with Ethiopia and helped defeat <BR> Adal. The Sultanate disintegrated in the 1570es and by 1660 was absorbed by other <BR> entities. The name Adal has been suggested for modern, independent Somaliland. <BR> Emirate established in the early 19th century, capital Yola, covering territory in <BR> eastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon. Under the sovereignty of the Sultan of <BR> Sokoto; in 1901 partitioned by the British (Nigeria) and the Germans (Cameroon). <BR> Islam was the official religion. <BR> language spoken by the descendants of the Dutch settlers in the Cape Colony, <BR> called the Afrikaners or Boers (since 1652). In the 1870es Afrikaans was treated as <BR> a separate language rather than a Dutch dialect. <BR> African National Congress, political party established in the Union of South Africa <BR> in 1912, concerned about legislation discriminating against 'blacks' and <BR> 'coloureds'. In 1948, Apartheid became the official programme of the South African <BR> government, and the ANC intensified her activities. Began military struggle in 1961 <BR> (when South Africa unilaterally declared independence from Britain); in 1963 the <BR> ANC leadership was arrested (Mandela spent 27 years in prison); a new ANC <BR> headquarters was established in Lusaka, Zambia. In 1990, Mandela was released <BR> from prison, and after free elections (ANC 63 %) a multiparty government was <BR> formed. The ANC is in government ever since; apartheid legislation has been re- <BR> pealed. <BR> the Portuguese established contact with the region of modern Angola in 1483, <BR> erected a fort at Luanda in 1575. From 1641 to 1648 Angola and Benguela were held <BR> by the Dutch, then retaken by a Luso-Brazilian leet. Angola and Benguela were <BR> important for Brazil, because they supplied it with African slaves. The borders of <BR> Angola were redefined after the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. An Anglo-German <BR> understanding aiming at partitioning the Portuguese colonies amongst them was <BR> not mplemented (1913). The struggle for independence began in 1956; Angola was <BR> released into independence in 1975, and suffered civil war for the following <BR> decades. A peace accord was signed in 1994. <BR> a policy of segregation, made the guiding principle of South African society 1948- <BR> 1990. The population was classified in four groups, whites, coloureds, Asians <BR> and blacks; intermariage was prohibited, they were to attend different schools, <BR> live in different parts of town, use different lavatories etc. A system of legalized <BR> discrimination. Abolished in 1990. <BR> confederacy in West Africa (modern Ghana, extending into Togo) from the 16th to <BR> the 19th century. In 1896/1900 subjected to British rule, annexed into the Gold <BR> Coast colony. The Golden Stool of the Asante was their throne; their leader was <BR> calld Asantehena. <BR> see under Asante <BR> in colonial Africa (1885-1918), African soldiers serving under European officers. <BR> spear with a short shaft and a large blade made of forged iron, used by the Zulu, <BR> Matabele etc., introduced by Shaka Zulu. <BR> or Aksum, name of ancient kingdom in NW Ethiopia. Emerged in the 5th century <BR> B.C., lasted into the 12th century. Converted to christianity early in the 4th century <BR> A.D., languageb Amharic, script Ge'ez, written since the 4th century. The Ethiopian <BR> church recognized the authority of the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. <BR> or Baghirmi, Baguirmi, Sultanate located in northern Cameroon and SW Chad; <BR> founded in the 16th century, became Muslimic c.1600, capital Massenya. Asked <BR for French protection in 1893, partitioned by Germans (Cameroon) and French <BR> (Chad) in 1894. <BR> common name for over 400 ethnic groups in Africa spread from Cameroon to South <BR> Africa, which have related Bantu languages. Before the coming of the Europeans, <BR> they were cattle herders, did some agriculture, knew how to forge iron weapons <BR> and instruments. <BR> in the 1960es and 1970es, South Africa declared some areas (usually barren <BR> lands to be homelands of certain tribes. Some of these homlands, nicknamed <BR> Bantustans, were released into independence : Transkei autonomous 1963, <BR> independent 1976, Bophuthatswana autonomous 1971, independent 1977; Ciskei <BR> autonomous 1972, independent 1981, Venda autonomous 1973, independent 1979. <BR> Gazankulu, KaNgwane, KwaNdebele, KwaZulu, Lebowa and QwaQwa only <BR> achieved autonomy. Not recognized by any nation except for South Africa, they <BR> were reintegrated into South Africa in 1994. <BR> landlocked mountain kingdom established by Moshoeshoe I. in 1831. In 1868 pro- <BR> claimed a British protectorate. Attempts by the Union of South Africa (since 1910) <BR> to annex Basutoland were rejected by the British Colonial Office. Releaed into in- <BR> dependence in 1966, when the name of the country was changed into Lesotho. <BR> landlocked country in southern Africa, much of it Kalahari desert. Bechuana King <BR> requested British protectorate, which as granted in 1884. Southern Bechuanaland <BR> was annexed by the Cape Colony in 1885 (with the capital now outside the coun- <BR> try). In 1966 the colony was released into independence and renamed Botswana. <BR> Contrary to the anti-Apartheid of other southern African countries, Botswana (very <BR> thinly populated) stayed out of military conflicts and belongs to a small number of <BR> African states which pursued a successful economic policy. <BR> in 1908 Belgium took over the Congo Free State (heavily indebted to Belgium), which <BR> was renamed Belgian Congo. The capital was relocated to Leopoldville. Soon the <BR> export of minerals from Katanga (copper) became the leading source of revenue. <BR> In 1916/1920 Belgium gained Ruanda-Urundi, which was administrated as an <BR> annex to the Belgian Congo. In WW II, the Belgian Congo supplied the allies with the <BR> Uranium for the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear bombs. Released into indepen- <BR> dence in 1960. <BR> (a) modern state in West Africa, until 1975 called Dahomey. see there <BR> (b) historical kingdom and city located in sw Nigeria, from the 14th to the 19th cen- <BR> tury. Housed advanced craftsmen. Was conquered by the British in 1897. <BR> held in Berlin in 1884-1885, at the invitation of Otto von Bismarck. Established rules <BR> for the colonization of Africa, among them free trade in the Congo Basin, free navi- <BR> gation on the Congo, Zambezi and Niger, the common obligation to suppress the <BR> slave trade in Africa's interior, neutrality of colonis in the Congo Basin in case of a <BR> European war, and ruled how to proceed when a colonial power wished to estab- <BR> lish a protectorate on the African coast. Also called Africa or Congo Conference. <BR> region in southwestern Nigeria, mainly populated by Roman Catholic Ibo (Igbo). In <BR> 1967 the region seceded from Nigeria; the central government was unwilling to ac- <BR> cept the secession (Nigeria's oil producing area contested), and a war ensued <BR> which ended with the conquest of Biafra by federal troops in 1970. During the war, <BR> Biafra was supported by the French, Nigeria by the British. <BR> Dutch settlers in the Cape Colony (1652 onward) and their descendants. The word <BR> Boers translates to farmers; in the 17th century their purpose was to produce <BR> vegetables in order to supply V.O.C. ships stopping at Cape Town en route to or <BR> from India with fresh vitamins (scurvy was a major problem). When the Netherlands <BR> ceded the Cape Colony to Britain in 1806/1815, the Boer population soon resented <BR> English rule. Many left English-administrated territory and moved into the interior <BR> of South Africa, where they established the Boer Republics (see Oranje Vrijstaat, <BR> Z.A.R.), which remained independent until conquered by the British in the Boer <BR> War 1899-1902. The Boers spoke Cape Dutch which developed into Afrikaans; <BR> they are mostly Calvinists. <BR> Gold was found in the Z.A.R. (called Transvaal by the English) in 1886; in 1899 the <BR> British provoked the Boer Republics into declaring war. Heavily outnumbered, the <BR> Boers, during the early phase of the war, went on the offensive; in 1900 the British <BR> forces under Lord Kitchener occupied Bloemfontein and Pretoria, the capitals of <BR> the Boer Republics. The war was not over, as the Boers now resorted to guerilla <BR> tactics. The British rounded up the families of the Boers and held them in concen- <BR> tration camps, where they were given insufficient food and medical treatment; <BR> 28,000 of the inmates died, before the Boers surrendered. <BR> in the early 15th century, the Sefuwa Dynasty ruling Kanem moved their center to <BR> Bornu (south of Lake Chad); the Empire was reunited in the early 16th century. The <BR> dynasty was Muslim, but many among their subjects were not. The Empire declined <BR> in the early 19th century and was annexed by Wadai in 1846. In 1893 Rabeh con- <BR> trolled the area; he was defeated by the French. The area then was split up by the <BR> colonial powers (Germany : Cameroon, Britain : Northern Nigeria, France : Chad, <BR> Niger) <BR> former Bechuanaland. see under Bechuanaland <BR> modern Malawi, in colonial times known as Nyasaland. British missionaries ar- <BR> rived in the region in 1873; Britain declared a protectorate over parts of the area in <BR> 1889/1891; in 1893 the name British Central Africa Protectorate was introduced. <BR> Renamed Nyasaland in 1907. <BR> modern Kenya; coastal Kenya used to belong to the Sultanate of Zanzibar. Its <BR> failure to implement a policy to suppress slave trade in her territories on the con- <BR> tinent provided Germany, Britain and Italy with an excuse to partition these terri- <BR> tories; the British sector, with Mombasa, was administrated by the I.B.E.A.C. <BR> (Imperial British East Africa Company) which handed over the obligation to the <BR> British government in 1895. The so-called Lunatic Express was to connect the <BR> hinterland with the coast; Nairobi was founded in 1899. In 1920 the country was <BR> renamed Kenya. <BR> historical kingdom on the eastern shore of Lake Victoria, established in the 16th <BR> century. In the late 19th century, Catholic, Protestant missionaries and Islam <BR> competed for influence. In 1893 a British protectorate was proclaimed. Buganda <BR> was to form the core of Uganda, but retaind a high degree of political autonomy. <BR> It retained this autonomy when Uganda was released ino independence in 1962, <BR> but autonomy was abolished in 1966 when the palace of the Kabaka was raided <BR> by Ugandan police. The kingdom was restored, within the Republic of Uganda, <BR> in 1993. <BR> former Upper Volta. After a coup d'etat in 1983 renamed Burkina Faso - land of the <BR> incorruptible. <BR> in colonial times called Urundi, 1916/1920-1962 part of (Belgian) Ruanda-Urundi, <BR> 1890-1918 part of German East Africa. Landlocked; fertile volcanic soil, high <BR> population density. Population consists of majority Hutu and minority Tutsi; has <BR> seen ethnic violence, last 1993-1999, wih an estimated 250,000 victims. <BR> in 1884 Germany placed communities of coastal Cameroon under her protection <BR> (Britain had failed to respond to repeated requests for such protection by the <BR> chiefs of Duala). In the following decades the borders with British Nigeria and <BR> French Equatorial Africa were established. In WW I, in 1916 Cameroon was occu- <BR> pied by British and French forces; the colony was split into the smaller British <BR> Cameroons Territory and the larger French Cameroun. In 1960 the country was <BR> released into independence, with the southern part of British Cameroons re- <BR> joining, while the northern part joined Nigeria. <BR> in the 19th century, explorers and missionaries reported the practice of canni- <BR> balism among certain African tribes; the campaign to end cannibalism provided <BR> legitimacy to the colonization of Africa. The phenomenon of canniblism was <BR> largely restricted to the rainforest region, where game was scarce and the inhabi- <BR> tants suffered from a lack of animal protein. Missionaries, as well as colonial ad- <BR> ministrations, strove to suppress the practice. <BR> established by the Dutch V.O.C. in 1652, for the purpose of supplying bypassing <BR> V.O.C. ships en route to or from the East Indies with fresh vegetables. In 1806/ <BR> 1815 ceded by the Dutch to the British. The British adminitration soon alienated the <BR> larger part of the Dutch population, many of whom moved into the interior of S. <BR> Africa in the Great Trek. The Cape Colony enjoyed political autonomy; when <BR> diamonds were found in Kimberley in 1867 (in Griqualandwest, annexed into the <BR> Cape Colony in 1880) and gold was found in the adjacent Transvaal in 1886, immi- <BR> gration into the Cape Colony picked up. Under PM Cecil Rhodes, the Cape Colony <BR> got involved in his schemes of colonial expansion, which lie at the root of the <BR> Boer War (1899-1902). In 1910 the Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange River Colony <BR> and the Tranvaal founded the Union of South Africa. <BR> discovered by Bartolomeo Diaz in 1488, the hope related to Diaz' expectation <BR> that once the Cape was rounded, a sea route to India might be found - this was <BR> accomplished by Vaqsco da Gama n 1498. <BR> plan, conceived by Cecil Rhodes, to connect Cape Town and Cairo by a railroad <BR> constructed in an uninterrupted chain of British colonies/protectorates. The <BR> Fashoda Crisis of 1898 evolved over the issue, which concept - Cape to Cairo (Br.) <BR> or Dakar to Djibouti (French) prevailed. The British only acquired the last missing <BR> piece in an uninterrupted chain of territories in 1916/1920 (German East Africa, <BR> then renamed Tanganyika). The railway was never constructed. <BR> discovered and claimed by the Portuguese in 1456, then uninhabited. The islands <BR> were released into independence in 1975; attempts to merge them with Guinea <BR> Bissau failed in 1980. <BR> in colonial times called Oubangi-Chari, independent since 1960, 1977-1979 an <BR> Empire under Jean-Bedel Bokassa; landlocked. <BR> in French spelled Tchad, French authority established in the area 1900-1913, <BR> administration over Oubangi-Chari-Chad, which in 1910 became part of French <BR> Equatorial Africa. 1911 following the Second Morocco Crisis, revision of the <BR> western border with German Cameroon (lost territories regained 1916/1920). <BR> In 1920 Chad separated from Oubangi-Chari, capital Fot Lamy (modern N'Djamena) <BR> Independent since 1960. Repeated civil wars, conflict with Libya over the Aouzou <BR> Strip. <BR> group of islands in the Indian Ocean, north to northest of Madagascar. Prior to <BR> colonization, a group of small Sultanates, taken under French protection between <BR> 1841 and 1886. Administrated from Madagascar 1912-1946, independent - except <BR> for Mayote, the opulation of which opted to stay under France, in 1975. Seces- <BR> sionist movements. <BR> established in 1885 as a colony without motherland, with King Leopold II. as sove- <BR> reign, a free state because the Belgian parliament rejected any responsibility. <BR> Contrary to most colonies in Africa, the Congo Free State had to manage without <BR> subsidies from the motherland. Rubber collected by the indigenous (rubber tax) <BR> provided for the largest share of the state revenue; the Congo provided c.40 % of <BR> world rubber production. In 1903, reports about atrocities committed in the Congo <BR> and the activity of the Congo Reform Association exposed the administration of the <BR> Congo Free State to international criticism. In 1908 Belgium took over the Congo <BR> Free State, heavily indebted to Belgian banks, and renamed it Belgian Congo. <BR> The Belgian Congo was released into independence in 1960. It as often called <BR> Congo Leopoldville or Congo Kinshasa, to distinguish it from Cono Brazzaville. The <BR> years 1960 to 1964 were marked by civil war and the Katanga secession; in 1971 <BR> the country was renamed Zaire. Col. Mobutu had seized power in a coup d'etat <BR> in 1965 and ruled until 1997, a kleptocrat. After he was ousted, the country was <BR> renamed Democratic Republic of Congo (D.R. Congo), but lived through a civil war <BR> ever since. <BR> Following the Rwandan genocide and civil war in 1994, defeated Rwandan Hutu <BR> militias fled onto Zaire territory and used it as basis for operations into Rwanda. <BR> Ethnic groups in Zaire started to arm themselves, with various foreign powers <BR> allying themselves with militias inside Zaire. In 1997 a coalition of such militias <BR> drove the Mobutu regime out of office and into exile, and Laurence Kabila was es- <BR> tablished as president in Kinshasa. However he only controlled only part of the <BR> country, the various militias and foreign powers fighting for shares of Congolese <BR> territory ever since. The number of casualties the war has cost since 1997 is esti- <BR> mated at over three million, making it the most deadly war of recent history. <BR> founded by Belgian Edouard Morel in England, criticizing the Congo Free State <BR> for atrocities committed against the native population. Among the bases for <BR> criticism the Casement Report of 1904; among those joining in the criticism of the <BR> Congo Free State Arthur Conan Doyle, Joseph Conrad, Mark Twain. After 1905 the <BR> Congo Free State no longer dominted the headlines; in 1908 the state was taken <BR> over by the Belgian government (Belgian Congo). <BR> Congo Brazzaville, French protectorate proclaimed 1880, first called Moyen Congo. <BR> Incorporated into French Equatorial Africa in 1910 (capital Brazzaville); during WW II <BR> seat of the Fee French administration. Independent since 1960. <BR> historical kingdom in the interior of the eastern Gold Coast 1620-1901, warlike, <BR> famous for its corps of female warriors. The French declared a protectorate over <BR> adjacent coastal places (Porto Novo 1863, Cotonou 1883, established a protecto- <BR> rate over the entire kingdom of Dahomey in 1892. Named the colony Dahomey, <BR> which in 1904 was incorporated in French West Africa. In 1934, French Togo was <BR> annexed into Dahomey; in 1937 it was separated again. Dahomey declared inde- <BR> pendence in 1960. It was renamed into Benin in 1975. <BR> a concept French colonial politicians developed to counter Cecil Rhodes' Cape <BR> to Cairo project - a railway line connecting Dakar in West Africa with Djibouti on the <BR> Red Sea. In 1898 French and British military expeditions met at the Nile, causing <BR> the Fashoda Conflict - the French gave in, hat was the end of the Dakar to Djibouti <BR> project. <BR> In 1862 the French purchased the right to construct a port at Obock close to the <BR> southern exit of the Red Sea (the Suez Canal was under construction. The climate <BR> in Obock was unhealthy; in 1888 the French created another port at Djibouti, <BR> which became the center of administration of the Frenchy Somali Coast protecto- <BR> rate. A railway line was constructed from Djibouti into Ethiopia. The Ethiopians <BR> purchased the rifles from the French, with which they defeated the Italians in the <BR> Battle of Adowa 1896. The French Somali Coast was released into inependence in <BR> 1977; the country was renmed Djibouti. <BR> Before WW I, landlocked Uganda depended on British East Africa (Kenya) and the <BR> two entities temporarily had a joint administration. A customs union was implemen- <BR> ted in 1917, joined by Tanganyika in 1927. In 1919 the East African Currency Board <BR> was established, a currency union consisting of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika, <BR> joind by Zanzibar in 1936. In 1966 Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania introduced national <BR> currencies. In 1967 the East African Community was established; it disintegrated <BR> in 1978, when Tanzanian forces aided Ugandan exils in ousting Ugandan dictator <BR> Idi Amin. <BR> formerly Spanish Guinea, consisting of the islands of Fernando Poo and Annobon, <BR> and of mainland Rio Muni. Independent since 1968. The Nguema presidency (1968- <BR> 1979) turned into an exceptionally oppressive dictatorship; a considerable percen- <BR> tage of the population lives in exile. <BR> land on the western shore of the Red Sea, separated from Abyssinia by the <BR> Danakil abyss. The territory was occupied by Italian forces in 1882-1889; in 1890 the <BR> colony of Eritrea was proclaimed. In 1936, Italian forces conquered Ethiopia; <BR> Eritrea, Ethiopia and Italian Somalia were merged to form Italian East Africa, occupied <BR> by the British in 1941. In 1952, the British occupation forces withdrew from Eritrea, <BR> which was annexed by Ethiopia, with autonomous status for Eritrea. The autionomy <BR> was cancelled in 1962, beginning several decades of an Eritrean fight for indepen- <BR> dence. In 1991 political independence for Eritrea had been achieved. <BR> highland nation in East Africa; predecesor states Daamat, Axum, Zagwe, Abyssinia. <BR> Christian since the 4th century A.D.; a community of Ethiopian Jews also is very old. <BR> Also strong Muslim population element. Written tradition (Ge'ez) reaches back into <BR> the 4th century. Managed to stay independent during the Scramble for Africa; de- <BR> feated an Italian army n the Battle of Adowa in 1896. Joined the League of Nations in <BR> 1923; was conquered by Fascist Italy in 1935/1936, liberated in 1941, annexed Eri- <BR> trea in 1952. Coup d'etat ended monarchy in 1974; involved in long war with <BR> Somalia over the Ogaden region and faced decades-long rebellion in Eritrea. <BR> From 1974 to 1990 marxist government; toppled in 1991, when Eritrea became inde- <BR> pendent. Coffee originates from Ethiopia.<BR> In 1898, French and British military units met near Fashoda on the Nile river. Both <BR> attempting to claim the territory for their respective country, they camped in sight of <BR> each other and reported the situation to their respective governments. The crisis <BR> was solved by negotiation; the French withdrew their claim. <BR> island opposite the Bay of Benin; discovered and claimed by the Portuguese in <BR> 1472; ceded by Portugal to Spain in 1778 (Treaty of San Ildefonso). Leased to the <BR> British 1827-1843, merged with Rio Muni to form Spanish Guinea, bcame inde- <BR> pendent in 1968 as Equatorial Guinea. <BR> established in 1910 by merging Gabon, French Congo, Oubangi-Chari-Chad, the <BR> latter later split in Oubangi-Chari and Chad. Since 1916/1920 French Cameroun <BR> joined. Seat of administration Brazzaville. During World War II, Brazzaville became <BR> famous for being the seat of the Free French Government for a number of years. <BR> dissolved in 1957. <BR> see under Djibouti <BR> name for Mali in colonial times. Part of Upper Senegal and Niger until 1922, then <BR> established as a separate colony within French West Africa. Became independent <BR> in 1960. <BR> established in 1904, comprising of Senegal, French Sudan, Upper Volta, Niger, <BR> Guinea, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, since 1914/1920 French Togo. Capital Dakar in <BR> Senegal. Dissolved in 1957. <BR> West African people, converted to Islam in he 11th century, have contributed to the <BR> spread of Islam in West Africa by Jihad. Fulani inhabit an area stretching from Sene- <BR> gal to Cameroon. They used to be nomadic. <BR> fought by Usman dan Fodio in northern Nigeria in 1804-1810. Resulted in the estab- <BR> lishment of the Sultanate of Sokoto (1817). <BR> Islamic kingdom established by Fulani in the 18th century in eastern Senegal and <BR> Guinea. The state was fighting holy war to spread Islam, and to procure slaves es- <BR> sential for the kingdom's economy. Declared a French protectorate in 1899. <BR> claimed by France in 1843; in 1849 the French founded capital Libreville, as a settle- <BR> ment for freed slaves. In 1889 Gabon was merged with Congo Brazzaville; in 1904 <BR> it was again established as a separate entity. In 1910 it became part of French <BR> Equatorial Africa. Gabon became independent in 1960. Albert Schweitzer's hospital <BR> in Lambarene was located in Gabon. <BR> navigable river in West Africa, reached by the Portuguese in 1445. in 1651 Courlan- <BR> ders established Fort Jakob, taken by the English in 1661 (Fort James). The French <BR> established Fort Albreda in 1681. Contested between Englishy and French until <BR> 1815. Gambia long treated as a remote part of British West Africa (seat of admini- <BR> stration at Freetown, Sierra Leone or Accra, Gold Coast. Borders established in <BR> 1889 treaty with France. In 1888 Gambia was made a separate crown colony, with <BR> capital Bathurst (modern Banjul). Independence granted in 1965. <BR> ancient Ethiopian language, still used by the Ethiopian church. The Ethiopian alpha- <BR> bet also is often refered to as Ge'ez. <BR> claimed by Germany in 1886; in 1889-1890 the Abushiri Resistance was overcome, <BR> in 1891-1898 the Hehe Rebellion. Capital Daressalam. 1905-1907 Maji-Maji Revolt. <BR> The Germans constructed railroad from Daressalam to Lake Tanganyika, completed <BR> in 1913; introduced Sisal cultivation. In WW I, German commander Paul von Lettow- <BR> Vorbeck held GEA againt allied forces until 1916, and then switched to guerilla <BR> tactics, surrendering only weeks after the war had ended in Europe. GEA was <BR> partitioned; Belgium gained Ruanda-Urundi, Portugal Kionga, Britain the bulk of <BR> the territory, called Tanganyika. <BR> (1) historic kingdom in the Upper Niger valley (modern Mali), flourished in the 11th <BR> and 12th centuries; conquered by Mali in 1240. Mali was Islamic, Ghana not. <BR> (2) modern state in West Africa, in colonial times refered to as the Gold Coast. <BR> granted independence in 1957. Capital Accra. <BR> first, the term described a coastal stretch from the eastern Ivory Coast until the <BR> coast of modern Benin. Until into the later third of the 19th century, Europeans were <BR> content with establishing coastal forts and trading with the local Africans. The most <BR> important such forts were Elmina, Accra, Whydah. The first Europeans to trade <BR> here were the Portuguese, followed by the French, Dutch, Danes, British, Swedes. <BR> In the 19th century the importance of the Gold Coast trade declined, after slave <BR> trade was outlawed; the Asante exerted pressure on the African coastal statelets. <BR> The Danes sold their possessions on the Gold Coast to Britain in 1850, the Dutch <BR> ceded theirs in 1872. In 1896 the British declared a protectorate over the Asante. <BR> The Gold Coast was released into independence in 1957, and renamed Ghana. <BR> island off the coast of Senegal, reached by the Portuguese in 1445, seized by the <BR> Dutch in the 17th century; they were ousted by the French in 1677; temporarily <BR> held by the British. The island is famous for her slave traders' fortress. The num- <BR> bers of African slaves which have passed through the fortress are matter of dis- <BR> pute. Part of Senegal, one of Senegal's Quatre Communes. <BR> in 1835-1843, a considerable part of the Boers, disaffected by British rule in the <BR> Cape Colony, migrated into South frica's interior, where they established Boer <BR> Republics such as the Z.A.R. and Oranje Vrijstaat. <BR> (1) term refering to coastal west Africa, including the Pepper, Ivory, Gold Coast <BR> and the Bights of Benin and Biafra. The English guinea coin was first made from <BR> gold imported from the Guinea coast; the guineapig originates here. <BR> (2) state and former French colony in West Africa. the coastal region of Guinea <BR> and the Ivory Coast in 1849 was declared a French protectiorate, under he name <BR> Rivieres du Sud, administratd from Senegal. In 1890/1891 Ginea was established <BR> as a separate colony. Part of French West Africa since 1904. Independent since <BR> 1958. Experimented with socialism. <BR> former Portuguese Guinea, independent since 1975. Attempts to merge the country <BR> with Cape Verde were abandoned in 1979. <BR> armed resistance against the establishment of colonial rule in the central region <BR> of what the Germans claimed to be German East Africa (modern Tanzania) 1891- <BR> 1898. <BR> island located in the central south Atlantic, claimed and settled by the English in <BR> 1659. Important as a stopover for British vessels to and from East India. Napoleon <BR> lived here 1815-1821. Still British <BR> in German Southwest Africa (modern Namibia) 1904-1907; the rebellion erupted <BR> because the ongoing influx of white settlers threatened to deprive Herero of their <BR> pastures. The rebels were driven off into the Kalahari, where c.80 % of them pe- <BR> rished. <BR> in French : Cote d'Ivoire; the French established small protectorates on the coast <BR> in 1842, which together with protectorates in Guinea, as Rivieres du Sud, were <BR> administrated from Senegal. French protection was expanded into the interior; in <BR> 1892, Cote d'Ivoire was established as a seprate colony. In 1904 it joined French <BR> West Africa. Released into independence in 1960. One of West Africa's wealthier <BR> countries, until a civil war erupted in 2002. <BR> in 1886, gold was found on the Witwatrsrand in the Z.A.R. (Transvaal). Johannes- <BR> burg grew as a boomtown and by 1896 had reached 100,000 inhabitants. It became <BR> the largest city of the Union of South Africa (population 1.5 million), competing with <BR> Cape Town for the role of the country's economic center. <BR> land to the west of the lower Juba river. Mostly desert, inhabited by ethnic Somali; <BR> 1886-1925 part of British East Africa/Kenya. In 1925-1926 ceded to Italy as compen- <BR> sation for Dalmatia. The region of Oltre Juba (Jubaland) was integrated into Italian <BR> Somalia. In the 1990es Somalia disintegrated into a number of territories ruled by <BR> warlords; Jubaland declared independence in 1998. <BR> historical kingdom located in western Mali, on the Upper Niger, extending into <BR> Senegal and Mauretania. Established c.1650; conquered Segou in 1862. Resisted <BR> the French in the early 1890es, succumbed in 1893. The French administratively <BR> split up Kaarta territory. <BR> the Kanem Empire, on Lake Chad, with its political center to the east of the lake, <BR> emerged in the early 13th century; at that time ruler and elite converted to Islam. <BR> Control of the trade routes was of eminent importance to Kanem. In the early 15th <BR> century, the political center moved to Bornu (see there). <BR> mineral-rich region (copper etc.) in the southeast of the DR Congo. part of the <BR> Luba and Lunda Empires in the precolonial time, then ruled by Msiri. In the 1890es <BR> incorporated in the Congo Free State, since 1908 the Belgian Congo. Copper <BR> mining became the dominant industry since the area was connected to oceans by <BR> rail (1920es). Main city Lubumbashi (Elizabethville). Upon Congolese independence <BR> in 1960, Katanga attempted to secede (1960-1964). Renamed Shaba. <BR> in 1920, British East Africa was renamed Kenya. In 1925, the Kenyan Jubaland was <BR> ceded by Britain to Italy. In the 1950es, the Mau Mau fought for Kenyan indepen- <BR> dence. The rebellion was suppressed, independence granted in 1963. <BR> Swahili trading port on the coast of East Africa, in modern Tanzania. Dating back <BR> into the 11th century; visited by Ibn Battuta in 1331, sacked by the Portuguese in <BR> 1505 (who massacred those among the inhabitants who did not manage to flee). <BR> in 1698 the Omanis expelled the Portuguese and established their dominance; <BR> in 1841 the political center moved from Oman to Zanzibar. In 1886, Germany, <BR> Britain and Italy partitioned the mainland possessions of the Sultan of Zanzibar, <BR> Kilwa falling to German East Africa. The Abushiri Rebellion 1888-1890 was sup- <BR> pressed, Kilwa conquered by German forces in the process. <BR> at Kimberley in 1868 diamonds were found; the place turned out to be the world's <BR> largest diamond mine. Located in Griqualandwest, which was annexed by <BR> Britain in 1871, incorporated into the Cape Colony in 1880. Cecil Rhodes merged <BR> the various claims into De Beers, a quasi-monopolist in world diamond trade. <BR> historical kingdom located on the lower Congo River. Reached by the Portuguese <BR> in 1483, who established friendly relations with the kingdom; the latter accepted <BR> Portuguese missionaries. In 1571 the Portuguese established a fort at Luanda, <BR> to the south of Kongo. In the 17th century, Portugal fought several minor wars <BR> with Kongo; after 1665 the latter, now a Portuguese vassal. declined. In the 18th <BR> century the kingship ended. <BR> territory in southern Sudan, partially in Uganda. In the scramble of Africa, Britain <BR> had claimed the Nile valley, the Congo Free State the Congo valley. However, the <BR> Mahdiyya controlled northern and central Sudan since 1885, and the British, <BR> only in 1898, had undertaken an expedition into the Sudan to press their claims. <BR> Meanwhile the Congo Free State already had established stations on the Upper <BR> Nile. An agreement was reached, by which the territory in question - the Lado <BR> Enclave - was recognized as being part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and was <BR> leased by the latter to the Congo Free State for the lifetime of her sovereign, King <BR> Leopold II. of Belgium. When Belgum took over the Congo Free State in 1908, the <BR> Lado Enclave was haned over to the British. <BR> port city in Nigeria, named after Lagos in the Algarve (Portugal). Since the 1830es <BR> British patrol vessels enforcing the ban on slave trade released liberated slaves <BR> here; in 1861 the British declared Lagos a protectorate, administrated from Sierra <BR> Leone. In 1886 declared a separate colony; of city-state size. In 1906 integrated <BR> into th Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, which in 1914 was merged <BR> with Northern Nigeria to form Nigeria. Lagos became capital of Nigeria, which was <BR> released into independence in 1960. In 1991 the capital was moved to Abuja. <BR> landlocked nation surrounded by the Republic of South Africa, in colonial times <BR> called Basutoland, see there. <BR> founded by American philanthropists who purchased land on the coast, where <BR> they settled freed slaves returned from America. In 1847 Liberia was granted inde- <BR> pendence. Relations between Americanized settlers and local inhabitants were <BR> problematic; the republic was dominated by the ettlers and their descendants. <BR> During the Scramble for Africa, Liberia maintained her independence. In recent <BR> years, Liberia had been ruled by a series of dictators, and lived through civil wars <BR> 1989-1996 and 1999-2003. <BR> nickname for a railroad constructed from Mombasa inland into British East Africa <BR> 1896-1901, 'Lu' after colonial administrator Frederick Lugard. The aim was to es- <BR> tablish communication with Uganda; the interior of modern Kenya offered little to <BR> justify the expense. Kenya's capital Nairobi grew out of a railway construction <BR> camp. Lions proved a problem, as they entered the railway construction camps, <BR> killed and carried of workers. Workers from India were brought into British East <BR> Africa to construct the railway. <BR> historic kingdom in Katanga and adjacent eastern Angola, established in the 16th <BR> century, in the 19th century split in three kingdoms, then conquered by the Chokwe. <BR> The Lunda engaged in copper mining. <BR> large island in the Indian Ocean, off the eastern coast of soutern Africa, with a very <BR> peculiar fauna (lemurs etc.). The population descends from African as well as <BR> Malay ancestors, the latter believed to have emigrated before the Indian religions <BR> reached the Malay archipelago. Reached by the Portuguese in 1500; the French <BR> established forts on the coast in 1642, to abandon them shortly after. Later pirates <BR> used the island s base of operation (Republic Libertalia). In the late 18th/early 19th <BR> century the inland Merina Kingdom conquered most of the island. Missionaries <BR> developed Malagasy into a written language, based on the Latin alphabet. They <BR> also introduced the cultivation of vanilla. The French conquered Madagascar <BR> 1883-1896. In 1960 the country was released into independence. <BR> in German East Africa (modern Tanzania) 1905-1907. Caused by repressive mea- <BR> sures implemented by the administration, and by raised taxes. The rebels be- <BR> lived to have magic which would turn the German weapons into water. The rebel- <BR> lion covered a large area in the southern region of German East Africa, involving <BR> a number of ethnic groups. But when the magic failed to deliver, the rebels were <BR> despirited. The German treatment of the rebels was of such a kind hat it caused <BR> protests in Germany. <BR> in 1964, Nyasaland was released into independence, and was renamed Malawi. <BR> (1) historic kingdom in the Upper Niger Region, which with the conquest of Ghana <BR> in 1240 became the dominant force there. Mali ruler Mansa Musa achived legen- <BR> dary fame. Declined in the 16th century. <BR> (2) the French Sudan became independent in 1960 and as renamed Mali. A pro- <BR> jected Mali Confederation, which would have included Senegal, did not materialize. <BR> branch of the Zulu (also called Ndebele) who in 1823 moved out of the Natal region <BR> to escape Shaka Zulu. Adopting the Zulu fighting strategy, they established the <BR> Matabele Empire in what is modern Zimbabwe, pressing the majority Shona people <BR> into submission. In a charter in 1889 King Lobengula unwillingly signed sovereignty <BR> over to Cecil Rhodes' British South Africa Company; Matabelelnd was conquered <BR> by Rhodes' men in 1890-1893, and called Rhodesia. Today the Matabele or Nde- <BR> bele form c.20 % of the population of Zimbabwe. <BR> armed rebellion against British rule in Kenya 1952-1956. The rebels attacked isola- <BR> ted farms etc.; it was suppressed; many Mau Mau were imprisoned, among them <BR> Yomo Kenyatta, Kenya's first president. <BR> island in the Indian Ocean, uninhabited when found by the Portuguese. Early visi- <BR> tors found the Dodo birds (who, because of the lack of predators, did not fear men) <BR> provided a welcome change to sailor's diet, and soon became extinct. The Dutch <BR> settled the island in 1638, but abandoned it in 1658 - the function of the island to <BR> provide V.O.C. ships with fresh vegetables had been taken over by the Cape Colony. <BR> Named after Prince Maurice (Dutch stadholder). French 1715-1810, British 1810-<BR> 1968, hence independent. <BR> historical kingdom in the interior of Madagascar; in the late 18th and 19th century, <BR> it conquered most of the island. Conquered by the French in 1895-1896. <BR> migration of peoples who left eastern south Africa, fleeing Zulu raids. C.1810-1828. <BR> in the early 19th century, missionaries became interested in the African continent, <BR> first taking care of liberated slaves in protected settlements, then moving into the <BR> interior. They often were the first whites to reach the specific area; they studied the <BR> local languages and customs (many of the latter they tried to abolish). In order to <BR> secure the efforts of their work, or to provide better working conditions, missiona- <BR> ries often supported the establishment of a protectorate over their particular area. <BR> British protestant missionaries (London Missionary Society) were the first; French <BR> Catholics and American societies soon followed, others joining in later. <BR> in the early 16th century, the Portuguese established respectively conquered a <BR> number of strongholds on the eastern African coast, among them Delagoa Bay, <BR> Sofala and Mo&ccedil;ambique. Attempts to conquer Mwanamutapa, the source <BR> of gold, failed. By 1698 the Portuguese were ousted from their strongholds along <BR> the northern section of the east African coast. During the Scramble for Africa, <BR> Portugal held on to Mo&ccedil;ambique. Armed struggle for independence began <BR> in 1961; the country was released into independence in 1975. South Africa sup- <BR> poerted the Renamo rebels fighting the communist government; the civil war <BR> lastred from 1982 to 1992. <BR> Muslim Swahili port on the coast of Kenya; visited by Ibn Battuta in 1331; the Portu- <BR> guese held on to Mombasa 1526-1699, when they were ousted by the Omanis. <BR> 1741-1837 Mombasa was independent from Omani/Zanzibari rule, which was re- <BR> stored in 1837. When Germany, Italy and Britain partitioned the mainland posses- <BR> sions of the Sultnate of Zanzibar, Mombasa fell to British East Africa. Kenya's <BR> leading port and second largest city. <BR> in colonial times called (German) Southwest Africa, from 1916 to 1990 administrated <BR> by South Africa; independent since 1990. <BR> stretch of coast in eastern South Africa, named by the Portuguese, long avoided <BR> by Europeans becaue of the treacherous coast (shipwrecks) and the hostility of <BR> the inhabitants. The British established Port Natal in 1835, were temporarily ousted <BR> by the Boers (1838); the British reestablished control in 1842-1843. Administrated <BR> as a part of the Cape Colony, in 1856 Natal achieved the status of a separate colony. <BR> Self-government introduced in 1897; the Zulu Wars and the Boer Wars affected <BR> Natal. In 1910 Natal joined the nion of South Africa. Capital Pietermaritzburg. <BR> (1) navigable river in western Africa. For centuries the main communication and <BR> traffic artery of Sub-Saharan Africa. <BR> (2) French colony respectively independent state, named after the river. The French <BR> established their presence in 1899; until 1922 administratively part of Upper Senegal <BR> and Niger, which since 1904 was part of French West Africa. In 1922, Niger became <BR> a separate administratve entity within French West Africa. Became independent in <BR> 1960. <BR> created in 1914 by the merger of Southern and Northern Nigeria, two rather different <BR> regions; the merger was justified with the aim to place the railway system under <BR> one administration. Became independent in 1960. Biafra war of secssion 1967-1970; <BR> secession avoided. Oil export began in 1957. In 1991 the capital was moved from <BR> Lagos to Abuja. Africa's largest counry, by population. <BR> named after the village of Nok in Nigeria, where archaeologists found impressive <BR> artefacts dating back into the 5th century B.C.. The Nok civilization is the oldest <BR> Sub-Saharan African civilization on record which produced iron tools. <BR> the Royal Niger Company had begun to acquire territory in Northern Nigeria. In <BR> 1900, the Briish govt. took over and appointed Frederick Lugard High Commissioner; <BR> by 1903 he had forced the still independent sultanates in the area to submit to <BR> British rule. The railway network was quickly expanded. In 1914, Northern and <BR> Southern Nigeria were merged. <BR> modern Zambia. The British South Africa acquired Northwestern and Northeastern <BR> Rhodesia in 1900; in 1911 both were merged to form Northern Rhodesia. In 1953 <BR> the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was created; in 1964 it was dissolved, <BR> Northern Rhodesia, renamed Zambia, became independent. <BR> in 1907, British Central Africa was renamed in Nyasaland. 1915 revolt against British <BR> rule. 1953-1964 part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Released into <BR> independence in 1964, renamed Malawi. <BR> Organization of African Unity, established in 1963 in Addis Abeba, disbanded in 2002 <BR> (replaced by African Union). The OAU criticized remnants of colonialism, as well as <BR> Apartheid. It established the principle of the inviolability of borders drawn by colonial <BR> powers. <BR> desert regionn in eastern Ethiopia, inhabited by Somalis. From 1900 to 1935 Ethio- <BR> pian; following the Italian conquest of Ethiopia, the region was annexed into Italian <BR> Somalia. Reintegrated into Ethiopia, the region was fought over in a war between <BR> Ethiopia and Somalia in the 1960es to 1980es. Still Ethiopian. <BR> historic colony in Eastern Nigeria, east of the Niger Delta (Calabar Coast). In 1891 <BR> declared a British protectorate; in 1893 renamed Niger coast protectorate, and ex- <BR> tended; in 1900 renamed southern Nigeria (extending over the entire Nigerian coast <BR> except for Lagos). Oil Rivers refers to palm oil. <BR> the Orange Vrijstaat was conquered by the British in 1899-1902, and renamed <BR> Orange River Colony. In 1910 it joined the Union of South Africa. Capital Bloemfontein. <BR> Boer republic, proclaimed in 1854, conquered by the British in the Boer War 1899- <BR> 1902, renamed Orange River Colony. Oranje Vrijstaat translates to Orange Free <BR> State. <BR> territory of the modern Central African Republic; declared a French protectorate in <BR> 1894, soon named Oubangi-Chari-Chad; Chad was separated in 1920 to form a <BR> separate colony. Since 1910 part of French Equatorial Africa. Independent since <BR> 1960, when the country was renamed Central African Republic. <BR> Yoruba historic kingdom, capital Oyo, established in he 14th century, declined in <BR> the 18th century, conquered by Usman Dan Fodio early in the 19th century. <BR> Portuguese vessels visited the area since the mid 15th century, and established <BR> fforts at Cabreu and Bissau. In 1879, these were separated from he Cape Verde <BR> islands; struggle for independence began in 1961; independence was achieved <BR> in 1975, when the country was renamed Guinea Bissau. <BR> four communities in Senegal, the inhabitants of which were granted French citizen- <BR> ship and the right to vote in 1848 - Dakar, Goree St. Louis, Rufisque. <BR> until far into the 19th century Europeans avoided Africa's interior, especially the <BR> tropical regions, for fear of infectious diseases (malaria etc.); mortality was high. <BR> British explorer William Balfour Baikie in an expedition up the Niger and Benue <BR> Rivers in 1854 proved the effectiveness of quinine in preventing such infections; <BR> he did not loose one man. Quinine had been isolated in 1820. <BR> settled by the French in 1642, under the name Isle de Bourbon. Sugar plantations; <BR> import of African slaves. Occupied by the British 1810-1814; since then again <BR> French. still French, since 1946 Overseas Department. <BR> territory of the British South Africa Company, which in 1890-1900 acquired the ter- <BR> ritory of modern Zimbabwe and Zambia, then called Rhodesia. Land was confis- <BR> cated and handed out to white settlers. The BSAC in 1924 handed over her territo- <BR> ries to the British Colonial Office. In 1953, the Confederation of Rhodesia (North <BR> and South) and Nyasaland was created. In 1964, Northern Rhodesia, under the <BR> name of Zambia, became independent. Southern Rhodesia (the white govt. re- <BR> senting the British plan to introduce universal suffrage, which would mean black <BR> majority rule) unlaterally declared independence, as Rhodesia. Not recognized <BR> by almost the entire world, and facing armed resistance, the government in 1979 <BR> entered in negotiations; in 1980 universal suffrage was introduced, the country <BR> renamed Zimbabwe. see there <BR> Spain claimed the coast between the Niger Delta and Ogoue Rivers since 1778, <BR> but only after the Berlin Congress established permanent structures on the <BR> African mainland. In agreements with Germany and France, the borders were esta- <BR> blished. In 1909, Fernando Poo, Elobey, Annobon and Corrisco and Rio Muni were <BR> merged to form Spanish Guinea. <BR> During WW I, troops from the Belgian Congo played a major role in the conquest <BR> of German East Africa by allied troops. Belgium held on to Ruanda-Urundi, a colony <BR> administrated as an annex to the Belgian Congo until 1960. Ruanda-Urundi was <BR> released into independence in 1962, when it broke up in Rwanda and Burundi. <BR> in the Congo Free State, the adult male natives were required to pay taxes in form <BR> of a certain amount of rubber collected in the wild. The Congo Free State soon sup- <BR> plied 40 % of the world rubber production; the rubber tax was at the heart of criti- <BR> cism the Congo Free tate faced in 1903-1905. Some tax collectors have resorted <BR> to abuses in order to enforce the delivery of tax rubber, such as holding the wives <BR> of a person late with his rubber delivery hostage etc. <BR> in colonial times part of German East Africa until 1916/1920, then of Ruanda-Urundi, <BR> ruled by the Belgians, until 1962, when Rwanda became independent. Landlocked, <BR> highly fertile due to volcanic soil, hence high population density. Population con- <BR> sists of majority Hutu and minority Tutsi, which traditionally are overprportionally re- <BR> presented in govt., admnistration and military. On repeated occasions ethnic strife <BR> erupted, the worst the Rwandan Genocide of 1994. <BR> With exile Rwandan Tutsis, from bases in Uganda, preparing an invasion of their <BR> home country (since 1990), the Hutu-dominated administration planned genocide <BR> of the Tutsi still living in Rwanda. Between April and May, about half a million <BR> victims were killed by the Interahamwe militia. Then the invasion ousted the govern- <BR> ment; the Hutu militias fled across the border into Zaire, and the excile Tutsis estab- <BR> lished a new government. Simultaneously, another genocide took place in Burundi. <BR> in the years 1972-1974 the Sahel region (bordering to the north on the Sahara) ex- <BR> perienced an extraordinary famine, caused by a rising human as well as livestock <BR> population which verused groundwater resources. Entire herds of livestock died; <BR> international aid set in. Ethiopia was hard hit. The donors are disillusioned, how- <BR> ever, as the population continues to grow and future such situations are predic- <BR> table. <BR> Until into the 1880es, most European statesmen and governments were rather re- <BR> luctant to engage in colonial adventures in Africa, which were regarded burden- <BR> some, risky and deficitary. The activities of Belgian king Leopold II. and explorer <BR> Henry Morton Stanley changed the situation; at the Berlin Conference 1884-1885, <BR> rules for the colonization of Africa were established, and by the end of the century <BR> most of Africa had been colonized. New colonial powers had joined in - Germany, <BR> Italy, Belgum. While this scramble had been peaceful in the 1880es, toward the turn <BR> of the century conflicts over African territory evolved - the Fashoda Crisis of 1898, <BR> the Boer War 1899-1902, the Congo Crisis 1903-1905, the Morocco Crises 1906, <BR> 1911, the Italian-Ottoman War 1911-1912. <BR> historical kingdom in the upper Niger valley (modern Mali), from the 17th to the 19th <BR> century. In 1862 conquered and annexed by Kaarta. <BR> land in west Africa, reached by the Portuguese in 1445. The French established <BR> themselves at St. Louis in 1659. By the early 19th century, they pushed along the <BR> navigable Senegal river into the interior; from here, in the closing years of the <BR> century, they launched their push into the interior. In 1904 Dakar became capital <BR> of French West Africa. Released into independence in 1960. see Quatre Com- <BR> munes. <BR> coastal stretch in west Africa, first visited by the Portuguese in the 15th century, <BR> literally Mountains of the Lions. The English established trading forts in the 17th <BR> century, beginning in 1628. From 1787 onward, freed slaves were settled at Free- <BR> town. In 1807 Britain outlawed slave trade; Sierra Leone was the base from which <BR> British ships searching for slave-carrying ships operated, and where most of <BR> the freed slaves were settled. Protestant missionaries arrived in 1827. Temporarily, <BR> other British possessions in West Africa (Gambia, Gold Coast, Lagos) were ad- <BR> ministrated from Sierra Leone. Inland borders determined in the late 19th/early <BR> 20th century, independence achieved in 1961. Civil war 1999-2000. <BR> Swahili trading city on the coast of modern Mo&ccedil;ambique, used to control <BR> gold trade with Mwanaqmutapa / Changamire in the interior. In 1505 the Portuguese <BR> established a trading post at Sofala, and other trading posts on the lower Zambezi <BR> to divert the Changamire trade from Sofala; the city declined. <BR> historic Sultanate in nw Nigeria, established in the early 19th century during the <BR> Fulani Jihad, Adamawa a Sokoto vassall. Accepted British sovereignty in 1903; <BR> incorporated into Northern Nigeria. Islamic; majority of inhabitants Haussa. <BR> the Somali are Muslim pastoral people inhabiting a desert region on the Horn of <BR> Africa. In 1884 the British established a protectorate over Somaliland, in 1889 the <BR> Italians over Benadir, later renamed Somalia. When both colonies became inde- <BR> pendent in 1960, they merged to form Somalia. S. is one of the few African countries <BR> which developed nationalism; S. over decades fought a war with Ethiopia over the <BR> Ogaden region, part of Ethiopia, but inhabited by Somalis. At first, Somalia was sup- <BR> ported by the USSR, later by the west. With the cold war ending, support for S. <BR> declined; the country disintegrated; civil war ensued. A UN intervention to protect <BR> humanitarian organizations operate 1993-1995 failed. Somaliland declared inde- <BR> pendence in 1991; other fragments include Jubaland, Puntland, and core Somalia <BR> around Mogadishu. <BR> region at the Horn of Africa; here, old ports of Zeila (Zeylac) and Berbera are lo- <BR> cated. seat of the Muslim Sultanate of Adal (16th to 17th century). In the late 19th <BR> century, ports occupied by Egypt; upon withdrawal of the Egyptians, the British <BR> moved in, declaring Somliland a protectorate. The main motive of the British was <BR> to prevent other colonial powers establishing themselves so close to the Bab el- <BR> Mandeb. In WW II, Italian forces occupied British Somaliland, which was virtually <BR> undefended (1940); in 1941 Italian East Africa was occupied by the British. In <BR> 1960 Somaliland was released into inependence, and merged with hitherto Italian <BR> Somalia. The union was dominated by the latter. In 1991, Somaliland seceded. It <BR> still lacks international recognition. <BR> historical state in the middle Niger valley (modern Mali), established in the 8th <BR> century, converted to Islm c.1000, conquered Timbuctu in 1468; the Moroccan <BR> conquest of Timbuctu in 1591 marks the decline of Songhai. <BR> in 1910 the Union of South Africa was formed by the Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange <BR> River Colony and Transvaal, and was given home rule. In WW I South African forces <BR> occupied German Southwest Africa, an area ruled by South Africa until 1990. In <BR> 1948 the National Party won the elections and began implementing Apartheid policy. <BR> In 1961 South Africa unilaterally declared fukll independence from Britain and be- <BR> came a republic. South Africa diplomatically became isolated; in 1990 a transition <BR> to a full democratic society and the repealing of Apartheid laws were begun. <BR> the British South Africa Company established control of Matabeleland in 1890/1893 <BR> and brought in white settlers. The BSAC haned over the administration of the terri- <BR> tory to British authorities in 1923. 1953-1964 Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. <BR> When Zambia (Northern Rhod.) and Malawi (Nyasaland) were released into inde- <BR> pendence in 1964, the white-dominated parliament of Southrn Rhodesia unilaterally <BR> declared independence (see under Rhodesia). <BR> established as German Southwest Africa in 1884-1900, occupied by South African <BR> forces in 1915, administrated by South Africa until 1990; in 1964 the UN called on <BR> South Africa to release the country, since 1968 called Namibia, into independence <BR> The SWAPO began armed struggle for independence in the 1970es. Released into <BR> independence in 1990. <BR> township for black inhabitants on the outskirts of Johannesburg, designed to be <BR> easily controlled by police. Became the center for anti-Apartheid demonstrations <BR> etc. in the 1970es. Soweto = South Western Townships. <BR> In 1909, Fernando Poo, Elobey, Annobon & Corrisco and Rio Muni were merged <BR> to form Spanish Guinea. In 1968, as Equatorial Guinea, released into independence. <BR> East African coast, the core of which was formed by a chain of cities, the more <BR> important ones being Mombasa, Zanzibar, Kilwa, Sofala. They had in common an <BR> ethnically mixed, predominantly Muslim population consisting of Arab, Persian, <BR> Indian and African elements. The Swahili language combines Arab and African <BR> elements; the Swahili were proud of their Arab ancestry. On the eve of colonialism, <BR> most of the Swahili coast was controlled by the Sultanate of Zanzibar. <BR> landlocked country in southern Africa, bordering on South Africa and Mio&ccdil;ambique. <BR> In the 19th century, managed to withstand Zulu pressure; in 1894 declared a pro- <BR> tectorate of the Z.A.R., after the Boer War admnistrated by the British together with <BR> Basutolnd and Bechuanaland; not included when the Union of South Africa was <BR> formed in 1910; repeated South African requests for the integration of Swaziland <BR> were rejected. Released into independence in 1968, still a kingdom, with a number <BR> of peculiar traditions reaching back into precolonial times. <BR> in 1916, allied forces occupied German East Africa; the bulk of the territory, under <BR> the name of Tanganyika, came under British administration (except for Ruanda <BR> Urundi (Belgian) and Kionga (Portuguese)). T. in 1922 joined the East African Cur- <BR> cency Union, in 1927 the East African Custom Union. Released into independence <BR> in 1961; merged with Zanzibar in 1964, the country then renamed Tanzania. <BR> created by the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964 (which, on the side of <BR> Zanzibar, was enforced; the union was dominated by T.). Tanzania introduced <BR> an African brand of socialism, Ujamaa. Joined the East African Community in 1967, <BR> which in the early 1970es ceased to function. In 1979 Tanzanian forces invaded <BR> Uganda, ousting dictator Idi Amin. <BR> country in West Africa, on what used to be called the Gold Coast. German protecto- <BR> rate declared in 1884. The cinderella among Germany's colonies in Africa, as it <BR> received no subsidies from the motherland. In 1914 occupied and partitioned by <BR> British and French forces; the Britih sector later integrated into Ghana. The French <BR> part of Togo between 1934 and 1937 annexed into Dahomey, then separated again. <BR> released into independence in 1960. <BR> reached by the Portuguese in 1471, settled in 1483, sugar plantation economy in- <BR> troduced. Sao Tome played an important role in sugar production, until coastal <BR> northeastern Brazil was settled in the 1530es. Held by the Dutch 1641-1644. <BR> Released into independence in 1975. <BR> or Timbuktu, Tombouctou, city on the knee of the Niger River in modern Mali, <BR> southern end of an ancient Trans-Saharan trade route connecting it with Morocco. <BR> part of the Kingdom of Mali, in 1468 captured by Songhai, in 1591 by the Moroccans. <BR> Legendary city, entry to which was forbidden to christians. Declined after 1591. <BR> English name for the Z.A.R.; official name for her territory (1900) 1902-1990. Joined <BR> the Union of South Africa in 1910. <BR> fly inhabiting the tropical rainforest region in Africa. Carrying infectious diseases, <BR> among them malaria. The fly also carries diseases killing off horses and cattle. <BR> Tsetse flies are blamed for the fact that horse-riding cultures did not penetrate <BR> into and beyond the rainforest region, until horses were shipped to southern and <BR> eastern Africa during colonialism. <BR> Berber people inhabiting the western Sahara (modern Algeria, Mali, Niger), histo- <BR> rically engaged in the Trans-Saharan trade. Difficult to control by both the French <BR> colonial administration and by those of Mali and Niger. <BR> declared a British protectorate in 1893; the core is formed by the historic kingdom of <BR> Buganda, which maintained a high degree of autonomy. British economic activity <BR> (settlement, coffee plantations) centered on the Bunyoro region. In 1920 East <BR> African Customs and Currency Union established. Uganda became independent in <BR> 1962. Notorious dictator Idi Amin was toppled in 1979 by a Tanzanian invasion; <BR> following decades of civil war, stablity was restored by Yoweri Muzeveni in 1985/ <BR> 1986. The Ugandan economy, measured in African standards, has recovered re- <BR> markably well. Northern border regions still subject to raides by rebels from across <BR> the Sudanese border. <BR> Tanzanian brand of socialism, proclaimed by presient Julius Nyerere in the Arusha <BR> Declaration of 1967, emphasizing communal ownership and joint working of the <BR> land. Continued population growth strained the resources; the system did not pro- <BR> vide for economic growth. It was rejected by the population of the coastal cities, <BR> especially in Zanzibar, accustomed to a market economy. <BR> former French colony in West Africa, landlocked. French spelling Haute Volta. Prior <BR> to the arrival of the French, split in a number of (mostly Mossi) states, among them <BR> Gourma, Ouagadougou, Yatenga. The French established a protectorate over the <BR> preexisting political entitis in 1895/1896; administratively part of Upper Senegal and <BR> Niger. Part of French West Africa since 1904. In 1919 separated from Upper Sengal <BR> and Niger and established as a separate colony; in 1932 partitioned, the parts <BR> being annexed into Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger and Dahomey. Reconstituted in 1947, <BR> independent since 1960, in 1983 renamed Burkina Faso. <BR> also spelled Ouaddai, hitoric sultanate located in eastern Chad, mentioned in the <BR> 16th century, converted to Islam in the 17th century. In the 19th century conquered <BR> Bornu, made Bagirmi her vassall. The French established nominal control in 1903 <BR> and abolished the Sultanate in 1912, because of continued resitance. The Sultanate <BR> was reintroduced in 1935 (within the French Chad). <BR> French West Africa had common currency since 1901 (although other currencies <BR> also were used). In 1945, the Franc des Colonies Fran&ccedil;aises was intro- <BR> duced. The banknotes issued by the Central Bank of West Aftrica, located in Dakar, <BR> continued to be used in the various former French colonies after indepenence. <BR> Currency since 1960 CFA Franc (Communaute Financiere Africaine). In 1994 the <BR> West African Economic Monetary Union was signed, members Benin, Burkina <BR> Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo. <BR> area containing the world's largest gold deposits, found in 1886. Near Johannes- <BR> burg, South Africa. <BR> in 1971, Congo Leopoldville was renamed Republic of Zaire. When president-dictator <BR> Mobutu (1965-1997) was toppled in 1997, the country was renamed Zaire. The name <BR> Zaire is thus associted with the Mobutu regime. <BR> former Northern Rhodesia, independent since 1964. Capital Lusaka. Lusaka was the <BR> seat of the ANC while it was bannd in South Africa. <BR> island off the east coast of mainland Tanzania; historic Swahili trading city, came <BR> under Omani control in 1698; became separate Sultanate in 1841, which conrolled <BR> much of Africa's east coast. The possessions on the mainland were lost in 1886; <BR> Zanzibar herself accepted British protection in 1890. Released into independence <BR> in 1964, forcibly integrated into Tanzania, which is dominated by former Tanganyika. <BR> Zuid Afrikaansche Republiek (in Afrikaans; translates to South African Republic), <BR> official name of what in English language literature is referred to as the Transvaal. <BR> Proclaimed in 1839, recognized by the British in 1852, capital Pretoria. In 1886, gold <BR> was found at the Witwatersrand near Johannesburg. Conquered by the British in <BR> the Boer War 1899-1902. <BR> (1) historic stone-walled town in modern Zimbabwe, constructed from the 4th to the <BR> 15th centuries; deserted when found by A. Renders in 1868 and K. Mauch in 1871. <BR> (2) when Rhodesia introduced universal adult suffrage in 1979-1980, the country <BR> was renamed into Zimbabwe. Ruled by Robert Mugabe ever since, his rule has <BR> become more dictatorial and erratic over the years; maltreated the political opposi- <BR> tion; a number of white-owned farms were confiscated. <BR> Bantu ethnicity in eastern South Africa, which early in the 19th century, under <BR> Shaka Zulu, established an Empire based on military expansion, causing a number <BR> of ethnicities to flee the area (Mfecane). In 1879 defeated a British force in Battle <BR> of Isandlhwana; in 1887 the British Empire annexed Zululand; incorporated into <BR> Ntal in 1897. During the Apartheid years, he South African administration tried to <BR> stir up dissent between the Zulu (Inkatha) and other black ethnicities. <BR> </font></TD> </TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> <TABLE border = "0" cellspace="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> <TR> <TD align = "left" valign = "center" width = "700"> <font face = "Times Roman" size = "2"> PRINTED REFERENCE : <BR> African Historical Dictionaries, published by Scarecrow Press <BR> Pierre Kalck, Historical Dictionary of the Central African Republic, 1980, 152 pp. [G] <BR> Laura S. Kurtz, Historical Dictionary of Tanzania, 1978, 331 pp. [G] <BR> Pascal James Imperato, Historical Dictionary of Mali, 1977, 204 pp. [G] <BR> Samuel Decalo, Historical Dictionary of Togo, 1996, 390 pp. [G] <BR> Margaret Castagno, Historical Dictionary of Somalia, 1975, 213 pp. [G] <BR> Mark W. DeLancey, Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon, 1990, 297 pp. [G] <BR> John J. Grotpeter, Historical Dictionary of Zambia, 1979 [G] <BR> Cynthia A. Crosby, Historical Dictionary of Malawi, 1980 [G] <BR> Samuel Decalo, Historical Dictionary of Niger, 1979, 358 pp. [G] <BR> Max Liniger-Goumaz, Historical Dictionary of Equatorial Guinea, 1988, 238 pp. [G] <BR> A. Hughes, H.A. Gailey, Historical Dictionary of the Gambia, 1999 [G] <BR> D.M. MacFarland, Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso (former Upper Volta), 1998 [G] <BR> Samuel Decalo, Historical Dictionary of Dahomey, 1976 [G] <BR> Samuel Decalo, Historical Dictionary of Chad, 1987 [G] <BR> F. Morton e.a., Historical Dictionary of Botswana</A>, 1989 [G] <BR> R.K. Rasmussen, Historical Dictionary of Zimbabwe</A>, 1990 [G] <BR> V. Thompson, Historical Dictionary of the P.R. Congo</A>, 1984 [G] <BR> </font></TD></TR></TABLE> <BR><BR> </DIV> </DIV> <DIV align="center"> <A href="mailto:aganse@hotmail.com"> <IMG src="../../email.gif" border="0"></a><BR> </DIV><BR><BR><BR><BR><BR> <!-- Start of CH Counter --> <script type="text/javascript"> //<!-- // chCounter v2.0.0 // settings: cstatus = "active"; visible = "0"; path_to_counterfile = "http://www.zum.de/whkmla/counter/counter.php"; urlhp = "http://www.zum.de"; //////////////// url = unescape(location.href); file = url.substring(url.lastIndexOf(urlhp) + urlhp.length, url.length); file = (file.charAt(0) != "/") ? 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