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Before the conquest of the territory which from 1199 to 1918 was known as Livonia by the (German) Brethren of the Sword
in the years following 1199, this stretch of territory covering the parts of modern Latvia north
of the river Dvina and southern and central regions of modern Estonia, this territory was
inhabited by pagan speakers of Livonian and Estonian. The Brethren of the Sword who regarded their campaigns into Livonia as crusades established a state centered on Riga and enforced the conversion of the local population to christianity. The land, in form of fiefs, was given out to German knights; the local population was reduced to the status of serfs. Terra Mariana - the state of the Brethren of the Sword also covered Courland (Curonia, located to the south of the Dvina). In 1237 the state of the Brethren of the Sword was integrated into the state of the Teutonic Knights. In 1346 Estonia was acquired from Denmark. The Reformation resulted in the disintegration of the state of the Teutonic Order. Livonia (with Courland, Estonia and Oesel) remained a unit until 1561, when it also disintegrated; the Livonian diet (now only for Livonia proper, without Courland, Oesel and Estonia) paid homage to the King of Poland. In 1621 Livonia (except for Polish Livonia) was conquered by and switched allegiance to Sweden, in 1710 Swedish Livonia switched allegiance to the Russian Empire. Under Poland, Sweden and the Russian Empire, into the 19th century, Livonia maintained a large degree of regional autonomy. The German minority, controlling the diet, the city councils and the priesthood, was in control of the country, the languages of administration, education and jurisdiction Latin and German. The ethnic Livonians and Estonians remained uneducated serfs. In 1819 in Livland Gubernia the serfs were emancipated. In the course of the 19th century the Russian central government gradually encroached on the control the Livonian estates (diet) had over the country. A number of Livonians converted to Russian Orthodox christianity. During the Russian Revolution and Civil War (1917-1922), the Republics of Latvia, comprising of Courland and southern Livonia, and of Estonia, comprising of northern Estonia and Reval (Estonia) Gubernia, were proclaimed, and prevailed. The declaration of Latvian / Estonian as official languages, and a land reform implemented as one of the first acts of the new republics broke the stranglehold of the German minority over the country. Livland Gubernia 1710-1918 . Inflanty Voivodship 1621-1772 . Vitebsk Gubernia 1802-1918 Swedish Livonia 1621-1710 . Oesel Swedish 1645-1710 . Inflanty Voivodship 1621-1772 Livonia 1561-1621 . Oesel Danish 1560-1645 Terra Mariana 1199-1561 The Baltic Countries before the Crusades (-1199) Historical Atlas : Livonia Page List of Wars, Livonia Page |
| E x t e r n a l . F i l e s |
| Country Profiles | Links, Portals | Organizations | Accounts of History | Politics | Military History | Economic History |
| Social History | Ethnography | History of Religion | Regional History | Local History | Institutions | Culture |
| Biography | Others |
| D o c u m e n t s |
| Historical Data | Documents | Institutions | National Symbols |
| P r i n t e d . R e f e r e n c e |
| Bibliographies | Online Libraries | Online Journals | General Accounts | Specific Topics | Historical Dictionaries | Others |
| WEB-BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . EXTERNAL FILES |
| Country Profiles |
Articles : Livonia,
Governorate of Livonia,
Terra Mariana, from Wikipedia Articles : Gouvernement Livland, Livländische Konföderation, from Wikipedia German edition Article : Livland, Svenska Livland, from Wikipedia Swedish edition Courland, Livonia and Estonia. Confidential Handbooks No.57, 1919, from the British Foreign Office, posted on the Web by jewishgen.org K.J. von Blomberg, An account of Livonia: with a relation of the rise, progress, and decay of the Marian Teutonick Order, 1701, posted on Google Books |
| Links, on History |
Category : Livonia, from Wikipedia Kategori : Livland, from Wikipedia Swedish edition |
| Organizations |
Öpetatud Eesti Selts (Learned Estonian Society) Baltische Historische Kommission, page in German; Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes against Humanity; Latvia's History Commission, from MOFA Latvia Estonian Museum Association; Latvijas Muzeju Biedriba (in Latvian) Eesti Genealoogia Selts (Estonian Genealogical Society); Latvian Genealogical Society; Association of the Four Baltic Noble Corporations, Livonia, Estonia, Courland, and Oesel (Baltische Ritterschaften); click Estonia, Livonia, Oesel (Estländische Ritterschaft; Livländische Ritterschaft; Oeselsche Ritterschaft) Institut für Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen in Nordosteuropa at Universität Hamburg Latvijas Institute |
| Historical Dictionary |
Enzyklopädie des Europäischen Ostens, in German |
| Timelines |
Robert von Toll, Chronologie der Ordensmeister
über Livland, der Erzbischöfe von Riga und der Bischöfe von Leal, 1879, in German, posted on
Internet Archive |
| Accounts of History | general |
Uldis Balodis, Livonian History Gustav von Bergmann, Geschichte von Livland, nach bossuetischer Art entworfen 1776, in German, posted on Google Books |
| Specific Periods |
Articles : Governorate of Livonia,
Terra Mariana, from Wikipedia Articles : Gouvernement Livland, Livländische Konföderation, from Wikipedia German edition Article : Svenska Livland, from Wikipedia Swedish edition E. Seraphim, Geschichte Liv-, Est- und Kurlands von der "Aufsegelung" des Landes bis zur Einverleibung in das russische Reich, vol.1, 1895, in German, posted on Internet Archive F.G. Bienemann, Die Statthalterschaftszeit in Liv- und Estland (1783-1796), 1886, in German, posted on Internet Archive Erik Esvelt, The Swedish Empire in the Baltic Nations 1998 J. Eckardt, Livland im achtzehnten Jahrhundert : Umrisse zu einer livländischen Geschichte, 1876, in German, posted on Internet Archive |
| Historiography |
| Military |
Livland, Krieg, from Enzyklopädie des Europäischen Ostens,
in German |
| Economy & Finances |
Baltic Sea Trade, from Baltic Connections Bruno von Gernet, Die Entwicklung des Rigaer Handels und Verkehrs im Laufe der Letzten 50 Jahre bis zum Ausbruche des Weltkrieges 1919, in German, posted on Internet Archive William Urban, Medieval Livonian Numismatics |
| Ethnography |
| Religion |
Chronology of Catholic Dioceses, Estonia,
Latvia, from Kirken i Norge Jewish Virtual History Tour : Estonia, Latvia, from Jewish Virtual Library; Estonia, Latvia, from International Association of Jewish Genealogical Societies - Cemetery Project Category : Religion in Estonia, Religion in Latvia, from Wikipedia Religion, Eastern Orthodoxy in Estonia, from Estonica Patron Saint Index : Estonia, Patrons of Livonia Andres Andresen, The Reconfiguration of Lutheran Church Organization in the Baltic Region from the 1520s to 1917 Anton Fahne, Livland: Ein Beitrag zur Kirchen- und Sittengeschichte , 1875, in German, posted on Internet Archive A. Buchholtz, Geschichte der Juden in Riga bis zur Begründung der rigischen Hebräergemeinde im J. 1842, 1899, in German, posted on Internet Archive Paul Einhorn, Ueber die religioösen Vorstellungen der alten Völker in Liv- und Ehstland, 1857, posted on Internet Archive |
| History of Regions |
Peter Wilhelm Baron von Buxhövenden,
Beiträge zur Geschichte der Provinz Oesell,
1838, posted by Google Books |
| Local History |
Tartu History Timeline, from tartu.ee (Dorpat) Riga, History of, from vest_ang F.G. Bunge, Die Stadt Riga im dreizehnten und vierzehnten Jahrhundert. Geschichte, Verfassung und Rechtszustand (1878) 1968, in German, posted on Internet Archive |
| Institutions |
Structurae : Estonia;
Search Lighthouse Explorer for Estonia, Latvia |
| Culture |
| Biographies |
Baltische Biographische Lexika (Baltic Biographical Lexica), in German J.F. von Recke, Allgemeines Schriftsteller- und Gelehrten-Lexikon der Provinzen Livland, Esthland und Kurland, vol.II : G-K, 1829, vol.III : L-R, 1831, Supplements vol.I : A-K, 1859, in German, posted on Internet Archive J.G. Frobien, Rigasche Biographieen, (1881) 1973, in German, posted on Internet Archive |
| Others |
Palearctic Ecoregion, from WWF F.G. von Bunge, Einleitung in die Liv-, Esth- und curländische Rechtsgeschichte und Geschichte der Rechtsquellen, 1849, in German, posted on Internet Archive F.G. von Bunge, Geschichte des Gerichtswesens und Gerichtsverfahrens in Liv-, est- und Curland, 1874, posted on Internet Archive A.K.H. Bergengruen, Die grosse moskowitische Ambassade von 1697 in Livland, 1892, in German, posted on Internet Archive H.J. Krannhals, Die Influenza-Epidemie des Winters 1889-90 in Riga, 1891, in German, posted on Internet Archive |
| WEB-BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . EXTERNALLY POSTED DOCUMENTS |
| Historical Data | Lists of Statesmen |
World Statesmen : Livonia |
| Population Figures |
| Documents | Historical Newspapers |
Kranten Historisch [historical newspapers], scroll down for Estland |
| Image Databanks |
Europeana Wikimedia Commons |
| Archival Deposits | Online |
Digital Archive, from Estonial National Archive |
| Archival Deposits | Catalogue Online |
Estonia Documents, at Central Archive for the History of the Jewish People,
Jerusalem P.K. Grimsted, Archives and manuscript repositories in the USSR, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Belorussia, 1981, posted on Internet Archive Katalog des schwedischen Generalgouverneur-archivs zu Riga , 1908, posted on Internet Archive Dokumentesammlung des Herder-Instituts, mainly Baltic documents |
| Document Collections |
Baltic Connections : Exhibition F.G. von Bunge, Liv-, Est- und Kurländisches Urkundenbuch und Regesten vol.II : 1301-1367, 1855, vol.III : supplements, 1368-1393, 1857, vol.VI : supplements 1875, 2nd Series vol.1 : 1495-1500, 1900, 2nd Series vol.2 : 1501-1505, 1905, posted on Internet Archive Monumenta Livoniae Antiqua. Sammlung von Chroniken, Berichten, Urkunden und andern schriftlichen Denkmälern und Aufsätzen, welche zur Erläterung der Geschichte Liv-, Ehst- und Kurland's dienen, vol.1 1835, vol.2 1839, vol.3 1840, vol.4 1844, vol.5 1847, posted on Internet Archive Briefe und Urkunden zur geschichte Livlands in den jahren 1558-1562 1865, posted on Internet Archive Rikskansleren Axel Oxenstiernas skrifter och brefvexling vol.13 : 1635 1919, in Swedish, posted on Google Books |
| Individual Documents |
Livländische Reimchronik 1844, posted on Internet Archive J.G.L. Napiersky, Die Erbebücher der Stadt Riga, 1384-1579, 1888, posted on Internet Archive Das Liber Redituum der Stadt Riga 1881, posted on Internet Archive Bodeckers Chronik livl?ndischer und rigascher Ereignisse, 1593-1638 1890, posted on Internet Archive Salomon Henning's Lifflendische churlendische Chronica von 1554 bis 1590 ; und, Bericht in Religionssachen, 1857, posted on Internet Archive The chronicle of Henry of Livonia trsl. by James A. Brundage, 1961, posted on Google Books |
| Historical Maps |
click here City Panoramas 19th Century, from Historic Maps, Riga 1866 Alphabetism in the Baltic Provinces 1897, from Köztes Europa Baltic Provinces Ethnic, 1987, from Köztes Europa Old City Maps, from NLE Cartography Collection Old geographical maps from the NLE Cartography Collection K.R. Kupffer, Baltische Landeskunde : Atlas (1911) in German, posted on Internet Archive List of Maps of the (former Swedish) Baltic Provinces, kept in RA Stockholm, Krigsarkivet, some of them clickable; comment in Swedish Livland um 1270, Entstehung Livländische Städte, from EEO, text in German Maps, on Uldis Balodis, Livonian History |
|
Historical Encyclopedia Entries |
Articles Livonia,
Pernau,
Riga,
Wenden, from EB 1911 Article Riga, Baltic Provinces, from Jewish Encyclopedia 1901-1906 edition Articles Livland, Dorpat, Pernau, Riga, Walk, Wenden, Esthen, Letten, Liven, from Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, in German J. Chr. Nelkenbrecher, Allgemeines Taschenbuch der Münz-, Maass- und Gewichtskunde für Banquiers und Kaufleute (General Manual on Coinage, Measurement and Weights, for Bankers and Merchants) Berlin 1832, in German, entries Pernau, Riga, posted by DTBSWS J. Chr. Nelckenbrecher, Taschenbuch eines Banquiers und Kaufmanns enthaltend eine Erklärung aller ein- und ausländischen Münzen ..., Berlin : Wever 1769, in German, entries Riga, posted by DTBSWS |
| Tour Guides |
K. Baedeker, La Russie: manuel du voyageur,
1897,
1902, in French, posted on Internet Archive K. Baedeker, Russland : Handbuch für Reisende, 1888, in German, posted on Internet Archive K. Baedeker, St. Petersburg und Umgebung: Handbuch für Reisende 1901, in German, posted on Internet Archive |
| Institutions | Archives |
State Archives of Latvia |
| Musea |
Category : Museums in Estonia, from Wikipedia List of Museums in Latvia, from Wikipedia |
| Monuments |
| Libraries |
| National Symbols | Flags, Coats of Arms |
Coat of Arms, Vidzeme, from International Civic Heraldry |
| Coins |
The Coinage of the Baltic Countries, by
Girts Eisters Search Coin Archives for Livonia Search Early Dated Coins for Livonia William Urban, Medieval Livonian Numismatics Swedish Livonia and Riga, from Medieval Coinage |
| PRINTED REFERENCE |
| Bibliographies | general |
Datenbasis Internationale Beziehungen und Länderkunde
(Data Base on International Relations and Country Studies) (site in German, most titles listed in English;
numerous entries; publications mostly since 1970) RHS Bibliography UK National Archive Online Library |
| on Estonia, Latvia |
Estonian National Bibliography, from Slavic and East European Library Eesti Rahvus Bibliograafia (Estonian National Bibliography) National Bibliography Databases, from National Library of Latvia Baltische Historische Kommission, Publikationen (in German) |
| on Livonia |
|
on Specific Issues Concerning Livonia |
Baltic Amber Bibliography Estonia Publikationen, from IKGN Northern Crusades Bibliography, from Crusades Encyclopedia Lynn Nelson, A Bibliography of the Order of St. Mary of the Teutons, from ORB Livland, from Computatio |
| Online Libraries | general |
Internet Archives Gutenberg Library Online |
| on Eastern Central Europe |
National Library of Estonia : E-Library Central and Eastern European Online Library Virtual Library Eastern Europe, maintained in Germany, most sources in German |
| Online Journals | full text online |
Livländische Geschichtsliteratur
vol.2 1884,
vol.4 1904, posted on Internet Archive Baltische Monatsschrift 1859, posted on Internet Archive |
| General Accounts | on Eastern Europe |
Adrian Webb, The Longman Companion to Central and Eastern Europe since 1919, London etc.: Longman 2002 [G] David G. Kirby, The Baltic World 1772-1993, London : Longman 1995 Kevin O'Connor, The History of the Baltic States, Westport CT : Greenwood 2003, KMLA Lib.Sign. 947.9 O18h Reinhard Wittram, Baltische Geschichte. Die Ostseelande Livland, Estland und Kurland 1180-1918 (Baltic History. The Baltic Lands of Livonia, Estonia and Courland, 1180-1918), Darmstadt : Wissenschaftliche Buchgemeinschaft (1954) 1973, in German |
| on Estonia or Latvia |
Toivo U. Raun, Estonia and the Estonians, Stanford : Hoover Institution Press 2001 [G] Andrejs Plakans, The Latvians, a Short History, Stanford : Hoover Institution Press 1995, 257 pp. |
| Specific Topics |
| Historical Dictionary |
Tojvo Miljan, Historical Dictionary of Estonia, Lanham Md. : Scarecrow 2004 Andreis Plakans, Historical Dictionary of Latvia, Lanham Md : Scarecrow 2008 |
