A.) ROMAN AND THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD AFTER THE SECOND PUNIC WAR (201 B.C.)
At the beginning of the SECOND PUNIC WAR, in 264 B.C., Rome had just finished the unification of the Italian peninsula. Every city to the South
of the Po Valley had either been subjugated, or had entered in a single-sided alliance with Rome clearly favouring the latter. Dealing with
conquered areas, from 264 on Rome changed its policy. The newly acquired areas (SICILY 264/241, CORSICA 238, SARDINIA 238, GALLIA
CISALPINA (220/190), EPIRUS (212), BAETICA (206), TARRACONENSIS (206) were treated as separate provinces, administrated either by a
PROCONSUL or a PROPRAETOR. The policy of establishing colonies, where Roman settlers were settled in territory conquered from the
enemy, was discontinued.
Militarily, in 264 there were 5 great powers in the Mediterranean : Rome, CARTHAGO, MACEDONIA, the SELEUCID EMPIRE and PTOLEMAIC
EGYPT. Carthago was eliminated as a great power by the BATTLE OF ZAMA in 201, Macedonia by the BATTLE OF CYNOSCEPHALAE in 197, the
Seleucid Empire by the BATTLE OF MAGNESIA in 190. Rome could have expanded its territory much more than it actually did. Instead, it took
only the Spanish colonies of Carthago. The enemies were reduced in size : Carthago had to cede territory to NUMIDIA, Macedonia had to
concede the independence of many hitherto Macedonian city states. The Seleucids had to cede all their lands to the west of the Taurus
mountains and to accept the independence of recently conquered Ptolemaic Egypt. Rome preferred to rule the Mediterranean world indirectly,
through indigenous governments. From the perspective of those who governed "independent states" and had to experience permanent Roman
interference in affairs they regarded internal, it often proved too much to bare. Macedonia rose against Rome in 148, was defeated and turned
into a province, as was ACHAIA in 146. In the same year, Carthago was finally conquered and thoroughly destroyed. Its territory was turneed
into the new province of AFRICA. King ATTALOS III., without a heir, bequeathed his kingdom to Rome in 133, saving his people the suffering of a
war the outcome of which was clear. The Romans called their new province ASIA.
B.) THE STRUCTURE OF THE ROMAN STATE
The Roman State was based on warfare. By now there was a distinction between political magistrates and military officers. Wars were declared by
the SENATE, who also appointed distinguished officials with the command of the army. The Roman constitution had been designed to fit for a city
state. By 190, this city state had defeated all competitors in the mediterranean world and annexed considerable parts of it. But within the Roman
Empire, the number of those who had Roman citizenship was limited. Many of these citizens were spread in colonies all over Italy and Cisalpine
Gaul. These citizens usually were unable to attend the assembly on the Campus Martius. Armies were not exclusively recruited at these assemblies.
Soldiers signed up for 20 years, as modern Hellenistic warfare required professional armies. In the old days, retiring soldiers were rewarded with
a farm in one of the newly established colonies. But the Senate had become reluctant to hand out such farms, as they believed that these colonies
would be power-bases of the retired military commanders. Thus, VETERANS without economic certainty became a serious political factor in Rome,
especially after Macedonia (148), Achaia (146) and Carthago (146) had been reduced to provinces. The political situation in Rome became tense.
In 133 B.C.TRIBUNE TIBERIUS GRACCHUS got the PLEBEIAN ASSEMBLY to enact the Land Act, granting all veterans farms in the newly acquired
province of ASIA. The senatorial representative was not allowed to deliver the senate's VETO. Soon afterwards, T. Gracchus was assassinated. His
brother GAIUS GRACCHUS, Tribune for 123 and 122, continued Tiberius' policy, but was also assassinated in 121.
Another problem were the ALLIES (many small city-states spread all over Italy, all allied only with Rome, alliances which were dominated by Roman
interest). They had to dispatch auxiliary troops for every single one of Rome's many wars, but did not receive their appropriate share. In 91, the
allies split from Rome and established the federation of Italy with capital at Corbinium, triggering a CIVIL WAR. By 89, Rome had defeated the allies.
Italy was now unified, all Italians were given Roman citizenship.
C.) EXTERNAL AFFAIRS, 133-80 B.C.
In 111, JUGURTHA had taken power in NUMIDIA; in the process of fighting the hereditary king, a number of Roman citizens had been killed. Rome
declared war, but war made little progress, because Jugurtha bribed a number of senators. In 108, MARIUS was appointed IMPERATOR. In 106,
he defeated Jugurtha in battle; Jugurtha evoided capture and continued fighting guerilla warfare. He was finally caught by SULLA in 105. Numidia
had been added to the Roman provinces. In the meantime, a new danger had appeared in the north. The CIMBRI and TEUTONES, Germanic
peoples, had left their homeland and migrated southward in search of new land to settle on. In 113 they defeated the first Roman army at Noreia,
in 109 another, in 105 the thirrd at Arausio in GALLIA NARBONENSIS. The Senate appointed Marius imperator. Marius reorganised the Roman army,
and, with trickery, defeated the now separately marching Teutones (102) and Cimbri (101).
D.) INTERNAL STRIFE, 87-50
The Roman Republic was based on a constitutioin which emphasized checks and balances, a strict control of government. There were two
CONSULES who had to share authority with the SENATE. Two CENSORES had to make sure that laws and traditions were kept. This constitution was
developed for a Roman city-state. The quick expansion resulted in a number of problems. First, the provinces. They were ruled by appointed
governors (either a PROCONSUL or a PROPRAETOR). There were no checks and balances here, and more often than not the appointed governors
regarded their province as a goldmine, pressing as much wealth out of it as they could, as governor VERRES did with Sicily. But there were
exceptions, such as the case of CICERO as governor of CILICIA, who governed in modesty and honesty, treating the subjects with justice.
Since the GRACCHI, Rome was split in rival camps, the OPTIMATES, who favoured the interests of the PATRICIANS and NOBILES, and the
POPULARES, who favoured the interests of the PLEBEIANS, especially the numerous VETERANS. The Populares had found a leader in MARIUS, the
Optimates in SULLA, both archrivals since the JUGURTHINE WAR, when Sulla felt that he was cheated out of his share of the merit by Marius. When
the Senate appointed Sulla with the command over the army in the 1st MITHRIDATIC WAR, Marius pressed the Senate to overturn its decision and
appoint him instead. Sulla, who was already on the march, refused to lay down the command, and marched into Asia Minor, which Mithridates had
invaded. Marius' follower CINNA meanwhile took control of Rome and Italy. Lots of Sulla's supporters were arrested, tried and executed. Cinna died
in 84; by 82, Sulla had gained control of Italy. Now it was his side to do PROSCRIPTIONS among followers of Marius. Of Marius' followers, only
SERTORIUS was holding out, in control of Spain.
The dictatorship of Sulla brought some stability back. When he died in 78, the proscriptions were discontinued, but suspicions remained. The Roman
constitution had been misused; political opponents regarded each other as potential enemies. POMPEY had been sent against Sertorius in 77 and
defeated him in 72. In 73, the great SLAVE REVOLT under SPARTACUS broke out, which was finally succumbed in 71. LUCULLUS was governor of
CILICIA when Mithridates caused trouble again. He defeated him in the 3RD MITHRIDATIC WAR (in 72) and conquered ARMENIA, where Mithridates
had taken refuge (69). But his opponents in Rome, among them Pompey, were envious of his success, and they intrigued against him, stirring up a
mutiny among his troops. Lucullus was recalled in 66. CATILINA had been barred from running for office by made-up charges (70 B.C.). He had been
acquitted and tried again in 63, when he was opposed by CICERO, who was consul at that time. Catilina then conspired with others to have the
senators who opposed him assassinated, a plot uncovered by Cicero. Most conspirators were arrested, the remnant defeated in a skirmish; Catilina
himself fell (62).
In Rome, a new social phenomenon had appeared : the extraordinarily rich and powerful. They had strong followership, mostly consisting of those
who depended economically, or of Veterans who expected them - their former commanders - to induce the Senate to give them the handout
(farmstead or else) they hoped for. The Senate majority, representatives of which were Cicero and CATO THE YOUNGER, officials of moderate wealth
and limited followership, regarded the concentration of personal wealth and the powers that came with the political office as dangerous to the
constitution. The very rich therefore often felt as outsiders, facing a united front to oppose them. To counter this situation, CRASSUS and
POMPEY founded the 1ST TRIUMVIRATE in 60 B.C., with JULIUS CAESAR as a junior partner. The idea was to join forces and promote each other's
political career. They succeeded ; Caesar, after finishing his consulship in 59, was appointed proconsul of GALLIA CISALPINENSIS and NARBONENSIS
as well as of ILLYRIA for 5 years, in 55 Pompey was appointed governorr of BAETICA and TARRAGONENSIS for 5 years, Crassus governor of SYRIA on
the same terms.
Political office was regarded a career opportunity. The newly appointed governors raised legions and pursued a policy of expansion. Caesar began
the GALLIC WAR in 58; Crassus, from his rich province of Syria, attacked the PARTHIAN EMPIRE in 55. He fell in the BATTLE OF CARRHAE in 53 B.C.
E.) JULIUS CAESAR, THE CIVIL WAR AND HIS ASSASSINATION 49-44 B.C.
It took Caesar 8 years to accomplish his conquest of Gaul. The goal achieved and the great uprising of 53/52 subdued, Caesar returned with his
legions to Cisalpine Gaul in 51 B.C. The Senate demanded that he lay down his command and he disbanded his legions before he entered Italy.
Caesar hesitated for a while and, saying ALEA JACTA EST (the dice is cast), crossed the RUBICON into Italy, with his legions fully armed (49).
This was a breach of Roman constitution. The Senate regarded it as a coup d'etat on Caesar's side. It immediately appointed Pompey
IMPERATOR of the senatorial forces, which were yet to be assembled. Pompey, and the bulk of the Senate, left Italy for Greece, where Pompey was
able to raise an army. The CIVIL WAR was on. Caesar defeated Pompey in the BATTLE OF PHARSALUS (48); Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was
assassinated. Some of the senators who had opposed Caesar made their peace with him and returned to Rome. Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt
where he installed CLEOPATRA as queen. He then defeated his opponents in Africa (BATTLE OF THAPSUS, 46) and Spain (BATTLE OF MUNDA, 45)
and returned to Rome as a man too powerful to be controlled by the institutions foreseen by the Roman constitutions. He demanded to be given the
authority reflecting his actual position. The Senate, reluctantly, appointed him DICTATOR for the provinces outside Italy for 10 years - an unprecedented
case. Caesar was still not satisfied. He wanted dictatorship for life, without geographical restriction.
The Senate, deprived of many of its outstanding leaders (Cicero had died in 49, Cato the younger in 48), was still unwilling to disempowering itself
by granting Caesar the position he demanded. A number of senators, lead by BRUTUS and CASSIUS, conspired to assassinate Caesar on March 15th
44, the day he was supposed to receive his appointment. Caesar arrived unsuspecting and was killed according to the plan. The Senate immediately
voted to grant amnesty to the CONSPIRATORS. For a moment it seemed the plan had worked, the republic was saved and the danger of autocracy
had been avoided.
But then, Marc Antony held an emotional speech, characterising Caesar as a benevolent man who had bequeathed his entire fortune to the poor
people of Rome, as the victim of a crime. With the mob roused, the conspirators abruptly left Rome for Greece, where Brutus and Cassius raised
armies to fight the republican cause. Meanwhile, Marc Antony had declared OCTAVIAN Caesar's successor; the two, with insignificant Lepidus,
formed the 2ND TRIUMVIRATE. While Octavianus was to hold Rome, Marc Antony marched out to meet the republican army in Greece, where he
defeated them in the BATTLE OF PHILIPPI (42), the date which marks the end of the republic. After Philippi, SEXTUS POMPEY held out until 36 B.C.,
holding Sardinia and Sicily. He was defeated in 36 by AGRIPPA, Octavian's able commander.
This page is part of World History at KMLA Last revised on September 17th 2001/i>
