A.) The Emergence of the Byzantine Empire and Early Church Policy, 5th Century
The name "Byzantine Empire" was given to it by historians. The sources use the expression IMPERIUM ROMANUM (i.e. Roman Empire) or a Greek
equivalent; it's capital, Byzantium or CONSTANTINOPLE, was often referred to as the second Rome.
The Byzantinian emerged through the partition of the Roman Empire in a western and an eastern half in 395 A.D.; the east was allocated to
ARCADIUS. While the western Roman Empire collapsed in the succeeding century under Barbarian invasions, the Eastern Roman Empire held it's
ground. In this 5th century, an important transformation took place - CHRISTIANITY was firmly established as the sole state religion.
Although early christianity knew five patriarchs who ruled their respective church provinces, the Emperors in Constantinople regarded the
PATRIARCH OF CONSTANTINOPLE as the preeminent church leader. Through him and through the instrument of CHURCH COUNCILS, which were
held in the vicinity of Constantinople, the Emperors exerted influence on church policy. The most important councils were held at NICAEA in 325
and at CHALCEDON in 451. At Nicaea, the NICENE CREED (Trinity) was adopted, at Chalcedon MONOPHYSITISM condemned as a heresy; however,
the christian communities of Syria and Egypt - Byzantine provinces - were monophysites and rejected attempts from the state administration to
force them adopt the concept of trinity. The Syrians and Egyptians were to regard Byzantine administration as oppressive.
B.) Justinian and the Reestablishment of a Roman Empire (527-565)
Emperors ANASTASIOS I.(491-518) and JUSTIN I. (518-527) pursued a sound financial policy and left a filled treasury behind. Justin's successor
JUSTINIAN (527-565) was to engage in a very active policy. He had the HAGIA SOPHIA built, the central church in Constantinople (now a mosque;
regarded as one of the most magnificent buildings ever erected). Under him, Imperial Law was codified (CODEX IUSTINIANUS). Justinian engaged
in an ambitious policy of foreign expansion, sending out armies to conquer the VANDAL KINGDOM (533/534), the OSTROGOTH KINGDOM (535/553)
and the Visigoth Kingdom; the first two were destroyed, the provinces of Africa and Italy added to the Byzantine Empire, in case of the latter
Byzantium could only seize some coastal areas.
The conquests were of high symbolic value. The city of Rome was Roman again.
On the other hand, lavish construction, as well as the long-lasting war against the Ostrogoth Kingdom had ruined the finances of the Byzantine
Empire. The population of Italy, accustomed to the simple administration of the Goths, suffered under high taxation demanded from them by the
Greek tax-collectors.
Justinian's ruling style was that of a Hellenistic king, his palace lavish, with lot's of EUNUCH servants (even one of his most successful generals,
NARSES, was a eunuch) as well as with palace intrigues.
Constantinople had a large HIPPODROME (for chariot races) which had taken the function which the circus used to have in Rome. The presence
of the emperor was expected, and it often served for public events.
C.) Enemy Incursions and Territorial Losses, 565-650
Shortly after Justinian's death, enemies penetrated the borders of the Byzantine Empire - the LANGOBARDS or Lombards invaded Italy, Slavic tribes
(who were under the command of the Khan of the AVARS) invaded the Balkan peninsula. Although both invaders were rather unsophisticated - they
did not know how to take major, walled cities - they were there to stay. The Byzantine Empire did not have the finances to field an army.
In Italy as well as on the Balkans, Byzantium held on to major cities, such as Rome and Ravenna (and even to the road connecting both), to Spalato
(Split) in Dalmatia, to the coastal fringe of Greece and southern Italy. The population of Aquileja fled to an uninhabited island in the Po estuary - VENICE.
These coastal cities were to remain Byzantinian for centuries to come; most of the hinterlands were lost to Byzantinian control forever.
Early in the 7th century, Emperor HERACLIUS I. (610-641) faced a combined invasion of Persians and Avars. Persian Shah CHOSROE II. (591-628),
claiming to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Persian Kings and contested Byzantinian rule over Syria, Egypt, Anatolia. Constantinople was
besieged from two sides - by the Avars on the European bank of the Bosphorus, by the Persians from the Asian side. Heraclius borrowed money
from the church (gold treasures), raised an army, landed it on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, invaded Persia proper. The Persians broke off the
siege, Shah Chosroe II. was murdered, a peace on the basis of the status quo ante signed.
Again Byzantium had outmanoeuvred an enemy. Yet the church demanded immediate repayment of it's loan; taxation was higher than before. In this
situation, with both Persia and Byzantium exhausted from a long war, ISLAM emerged; the monophysite Syrians and Egyptians regarded them as
liberators and opened their city gates to the Muslims; Syria and Egypt were lost to the Byzantine Empire. Cyprus fell in 649.
D.) Regeneration and Recovery (700-1071)
Although losses continued (the province of AFRICA (i.e. Carthago) fell to the Muslims in 695; the Arabs gained domination on the Mediterranean late in
the 8th century; the Balearic Islands fell in 798, CRETE in 823, SICILY in 827) the Byzantine Empire could hold on to Anatolia. Here STRATEGIC HAMLETS
had been established, farms being handed out to farmers in return for their contribution to the defense of the country.
Muslim armies assaulted Constantinople twice, in 674-678 and in 711-718. Both times the city held out, largely thanks to an invention - GREEK FIRE - the
Byzantinian ships would approach the enemy with the wind in their back, spray petrol on the water surface and ignite it - watching the enemy fleet burn.
Byzantinian missionaries converted the BULGARIANS, SERBS and later even the RUSSIANS. In the 10th century the Byzantine Empire had sufficiently
recovered to take the offensive again. In 927 a Byzantine army conquered the Bulgarian Khanate, reestablishing Byzantine rule. Crete was retaken
from the Muslims in 961, Cyprus in 965, early in the 11th century, for a short time, even Antioch.
In 1054, an emissary of pope Leo IX. appeared in the Hagia Sophia, publicly excommunicating the Patriarch of Constantinople - who on the spot
excommunicated the pope (who had died a few days earlier). This event marked the beginning of the SCHISM, the formal separation of the western
Catholic and the eastern ORTHODOX CHURCH.
In fact, both churches had developed rather independent from each other, in liturgy, dogma and art.
Around 800 ICONOCLASM ruled for a while, images of saints, Jesus and God were banned from the churches; they were later reintroduced. Orthodox
churches, the most famous being the Hagia Sophia and Orthodox monasteries such as Meteora, the monasteries on Mount Athos and Mount Sinai,
are distinguished from gothic and romanesque churches by their architectural style, which is characterised by DOMES. Byzantinian ICONS (paintings,
usually portraiing saints, are rather simplistic - symbolic, if compared to ancient Greek art, and make use of a lot of gold and silver.
E.) The Seljuks and the Crusaders, 1071-1261
Turks had served in the armies of the Islamic Caliphate as Germanics in the armies of the Roman Empire. In 1071, a band of SELJUK Turks annihilated
a Byzantine army in the BATTLE OF MANTZIKERT. This victory opened up Anatolia for Seljuk raids and settlement. Iconium, in Turkisj KONYA, became
the capital of the Seljuks.
Threatened by the Seljuks, the Emperor appealed to the pope for military help from the west. This help arrived in form of a crusade; the Byzantinians,
however, were very sceptical of the crusaders.
In 1204 a claimant to the Byzantinian throne persuaded the crusaders on the 4th crusade to aid him in his bid for the throne. The crusaders took
Constantinople by siege (the first time since 330 and the only time before 1453). Yet the prince was unable to pay his mercenaries, who took the land
instead. The LATIN EMPIRE was erected, ruled by BAUDOUIN I. OF FLANDERS (1204-1205); other crusader states erected on Byzantinian soil were the
Duchies of ACHAIA, of ATHENS, of NAXOS. The Venetians and Genovans were given a number of islands.
The crusaders soon fought each other over the spoils. Several Byzantinian provinces now turned into independent states - the DESPOTATS EPIRUS,
NICAEA, TREBIZOND.
In the crusader states, the Catholic church attempted to force the orthodox church to accept Catholic dogmata and rites. This caused great resentment
and prepared the ground for Byzantinian recovery.
F.) Reestablishment of the Byzantinian Empire and it's Fall (1261-1453)
In 1261 the last crusaders left Constantinople, and Emperor MICHAEL VIII. PALAIAOLOGUS was crowned, hitherto the Despot of Nicaia. Yet the Empire he
had reestablished was only a mere shadow of what it used to be; most of Anatolia had been lost to the Turks (or to states which were quasi independent,
such as the Despotat of Trebizond); on the Balkans peninsula equally most was lost.
The Empire continued to suffer from palace intrigues and continuously pursued the policy of hiring foreigners to fight it's battles. It was Byzantinians
who shipped Osman mercenaries across the Bosphorus, which proved, in the long term, to be a fatal mistake. From early in the 14th century Byzantium
was reduced to the city itself and a few outlying posts, such as Mistra (Laconia, the old Spartan territory). When the city fell to the Turks in 1453, it's
population was a mere 5,000, down from over a million at it's height.
G.) Legacy
(1) Shaping of early christianity. Many words (parochy, ecclesiastic, liturgy, episcopal, eucharist, synod) have Greek origin. Nicene creed.
(2) Greek Orthodox church and related Orthodix churches (Serb, Bulgarian, Russian); Greek and Cyrillic script still used in Serbia, Bulgaria, Ukraine,
Russia
(3) Justinian's law influenced European law, as it was the main text taught at western medieval universities
(4) Greek refugees after 1453, translating Greek texts, gave additional inspiration to RENAISSANCE Europe.
This page is part of World History at KMLA Last revised on September 17th 2001
