The INDUS river valley saw the emergence of one of the world's early civilisations. Like Mesopotamia, Egypt and China it did develop a script.
However, after 1900 its use was discontinued (script to reemerge in the 5th century B.C.), and the texts which survived are so short that
linguists have not been able to decode them yet.
Complex cities of the Indus civilization have been excavated at HARAPPA and at MOHENJO DARO, larger in size than contemporary cities in
Mesopotamia and Egypt. Our knowledge of this civilisation is entirely based on archaeological evidence.
B.) The Aryan Invasion and the Emergence of Indian Society
Around 1500 B.C. the Aryans, Indo-European people, migrated across rhe KHYBER PASS into India, expelling the original inhabitants, the
Dravidians; Dravidians held ground on the southern tip of the pininsula; the TAMILs are regarded their descendants; most of India was settled
by Aryans.
Around 1000 an Aryan literature emerges, oral for centuries, then written in SANSKRIT language. The literature is largely epic in nature. Major
texts are the VEDAS, the UPANISHADS, the RAMAYANA, the MAHABHARATA. Indian society was polytheistic and highly stratified, in numerous
CASTES which were strictly separated from each other. BRAHMINS were priests; the religion is referred to as HINDUISM.
C.) Emerging Religions
In the 6th century B.C., SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA founded BUDDHISM, a religion based on belief that life is suffering, that individuals were caught
in a circle of REINCARNATION which would only repeat suffering, and that an end to it could only be sought be living an ethically perfect life,
by neglecting one's personal desires; the final stage to be reached would be the NIRVANA. Buddhists are outspoken vegetarians, renounce
violence. Centers of Buddhist religion are MONASTERIES, others STUPAS (pagodas). Buddhism became the favoured religion in a number of
kingdoms.
Another religion founded in the 6th century B.C. was JAINISM.
In contrast to other civilizations, India did not develop the genre of historical writing.
D.) Empires and Conquests
The KHYBER PASS continued to be an invasion road into India. In 513 B.C. the Persians conquered the Indus river region; in 326 Alexander the
Great invaded.
Shortly after Alexander died, King CHANDRAGUPTA (321-297) of MAGADHA, a kingdom located in the middle Ganges valley, conquered the Indus
valley and regions beyond in the Hindukush mts. His successor ASOKA expanded the Empire so that it covered the entire subcontinent except
Assam and the southern tip of the peninsula; Buddhism was the favoured religion.
MENANDER, the King of BACTRIA, in 170 conquered Gandhara (modern Punjab); Graeco-Bactrian rule over Gandhara was instrumental in the
introduction of HELLENISM. The Graeco-Bactrians adopted Buddhism, which took hold in the Hindukush mountains and beyond.
The subcontinent of India saw further invasions, the emergence of many regional states and dynasties. Of major importance was the GUPTA
EMPIRE 320-525 A.D.
In the 7th century, Buddhism was replaced by Hinduism, Buddhism almost vanished from the Indian subcontinent, holding out only in marginal
regions such as Ceylon and Tibet.
With the conqurst of Iran by Islam, Zoroastrians fled to India, whee they still form a religious community, the PARSEES, in the Bombay region.
In 711 Arab armies arrived in India, conquering the Indus river valley for the Caliphate. ISLAM became the dominant religion here. It abolished the
caste system in the regions affected.
In the Punjab, SIKHISM emerged as a new religion. In 1001-1026 Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni conquered nw India and established the GHAZNAVID
EMPIRE, capital Lahore, conquered in 1186 by Mohammed of Ghur. An usurper, Aibak in 1206 established the SULTANATE OF DELHI, which
lasted until 1526.
E.) The Moghul Empire
In 1526, BABUR, a descendant of Tamerlane, conquered Delhi and founded the MOGHUL EMPIRE, of which New Delhi was to be the capital. The
Moghul Dynasty was islamic; non-Muslims had to pay the PER-CAPITA-TAX. Babur's successor AKBAR introduced a policy of RELIGIOUS
TOLERATION, abolishing the divisive per-capita-tax. Emperor SHAH JEHAN is famous for constructing the TAJ MAHAL at Agra. under Emperor
AURANGZEB the Moghul Empire reached its largest extent; however he ended the policy of religious toleration by reintroducing the per-capita-tax.
The result was a Hindu rising, the formation of the MARATHA FEDERATION in northern Deccan. The Mughal Empire quicl;y declined.
F.) The India Trade and the Coming of the Europeans
India has long been an integral part of the world trade system, back since the days of antiquity. Indian products, in a wider definition, included
cotton, cloth, and spices, as well as other products. The Arabs had a dominating role in the India trade; Indian products, when they reached
Europe, commanded exorbitant prices.
In 1498 Portuguese navigator VASCO DA GAMA arrived at CALICUT on the coast of Malabar (Kerala State). The Portuguese brought shiploads of
Indian spices and other products back to Lisbon and instantly made a fortune. Governors ALFONSO DE ALBUQUERQUE and FRANCISCO DE
ALMEIDA began establishing a Portuguese colonial empire in India by conquering a number of coastal cities - Goa, Calicut, Bombay etc. The
Portuguese interest lay in control of the major markets and production areas; they did not venture inland. The Portuguese supported Catholic
missionaries.
In the early 17th century the DUTCH appeared, taking CEYLON and a number of coastal places (CALICUT) from the Portuguese. Soon other
European powers established factories (trading forts) on India's coast, among them the Danes, French and English.
By the 18th century, the Danes, Portuguese and Dutch merely held on to their possessions, while the French and English intended to expand their
possessions and trade. During the 7 YEARS WAR (1756-1763) the French, allied with many Indian princes, attempted to drive the English off the
subcontinent; SIR ROBERT CLIVE, in 1757, defeated the Nawab of Bengal in the BATTLE OF PLASSEY, gaining the rich province of Bengal.
G.) India British 1757-1947
From then onward the (British) EAST INDIA COMPANY quickly expanded their territory. Often the British were asked to aid one side in a throne
succession conflict, and were ceded the best province for their service. By ca. 1850 the British had established direct rule over many provinces,
while the others were left in the hands of native princes (INDIRECT RULE); these were given British advisors. An effect of British presence was
the end of inter-Indian warfare.
The British began to cultivate TEA in Assam, at Darjeeling and on Ceylon (from the 1820es onward) and also cultivated OPIUM for export to China.
An order addressed at Indian soldiers - Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs - to hold cartridges with their mouth during the complex reloading process of
rifles proved disastrous - the cartridges were greased in pork fat. The Indian soldiers, for whom pork was taboo, mutinied (SEPOY REBELLION
1856-1857). The East India Company went bankrupt; Britain sent soldiers. The mutiny was suppressed; India became a crown colony. In 1876
Queen Victoria assumed the title EMPRESS OF INDIA; the capital was moved fro,m Calcutta to Delhi.
Early in the 20th century, the CONGRESS PARTY was founded by Indians wary of foreign rule. In MOHANDAS K. GANDHI, a leader emerged, who
propagated NON-VIOLENT NON-COOPERATION. Gandhi, who had studied law in London, supported the British effort in World War I and
interrupted his campaign during World War II.
In 1937, Burma, Ceylon, Aden, Oman, the Trucial States, Kuwait and Bahrain were separated from British India. In 1947 Britain granted independence.
H.) Independent India and Pakistan
In 1947 The British released India into independence; immediately the subcontinent broke up in a Muslim-dominated PAKISTAN (named after the
initials for Punjab, Kashmir, Sindh) with the Exclave EAST PAKISTAN (now Bangla Desh) and a Hindu-dominated INDIA.
The principalities, nominally independent, were asked to opt for either India or Pakistan. The Maharaja of Kashmir, a Hindu, opted for India; the
large majority of Kashmiris, however, are Muslims. As a result fighting arose over the state, which has been split in three parts ever since (the
Chinese occupied the east). The principality of HYDERABAD was conquered by Indian forces, as the prince refused to give up independence.
India became the WORLD'S LARGEST DEMOCRACY, PANDIT NEHRU it's first president. Nehru pursued a policy of neutrality in the emerging
COLD WAR and was one of the active politicians shaping the NONALIGNMENT MOVEMENT. He was succeeded by his daughter INDIRA GANDHI.
The subcontinent's recent history is shaped by the Indo-Pakistani conflict; there have been three full-scale wars between India and Pakistan
since 1947. (1947, 1965, 1971)
In 1954, India annexed the last French possessions in India, in 1961 the last Portuguese possessions (Goa). In 1959-1962 there was a border
conflict with China. In 1971, when a rebellion broke out in Bengal against Pakistani rule, India fought it's archenemy Pakistan; East Pakistan declared
independence as Bangla Desh.
Prime minister Indira Gandhi supported a policy of sterilization to check population growth; this unpopular measure resulted in the Congress Party's
first election defeat.
At present the Indo-Pakistani rivalry continues; both countries recently have joined the ranks of nuclear powers. India's population just crossed
the number of 1,000,000,000; the country is expected to surpass China as the world's most populous nation early in the 21st century. Poverty,
pollution and continued population growth are among the major problems facing the governments of the region.
This page is part of World History at KMLA Last revised on September 18th 2001
