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Narratives : History of the Near East http://www.zum.de/whkmla/sat/texts/narrneareast.html |
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Note : for the early history of the region, click chapters Early Empires,
Hellenism, Roman Empire,
Early Christianity, Zoroastrianism. The Near East prior to Islam . Historical maps trying to describe the political situation in the late 6th respectively early 7th century A.D. in the Near East show usually three colours - one indicating territory of the Byzantine Empire, one indicating territory of the Sassanid or Neo-Persian Empire, and white - for the Arab peninsula. The Sassanid Empire regarded Zoroastrianism official religion; Ctesiphon was capital, polo national sport. The Byzantine Empire ruled over Anatolia, Greater Syria and Egypt. While the Emperors in Constantinople regarded Catholic (i.e. Greek Orthodox) christianity, with her emphasis on trinity, as official, and, among christians, mandatory creed, in Syria and Egypt monophysitism was widespread and the Byzantinian religious policy resented. The Byzantine and Persian Empires, from 603 to 628 A.D., fought a lenghty and costly war. The Persians occupied Syria, Egypt, Anatolia and, in alliance with the Avars, laid siege to Constantinople, but failed to take the city. Emperor Heraclius borrowed money from the Patriarch of Constantinople (who had his golden and silver treasures molten), hired an army of mercenaries, landed it on the southeastern shore of the Black Sea and marched it toward Ctesiphon; the Persians had to abandon the siege. Shah Chosroe II., blamed for the disaster, was assassinated. Soon, a peace on the status quo ante was signed. The lengthy war had exhausted both Empires financially; in Constantinople the Patriarch insisted on hasty repayment of his loan. The Byzantine Empire resorted to severe taxation; in Syria and Egypt the Byzantine administration was sensed as a foreign oppressor. Arabia was a peninsula, for the greater part covered by desert, with sporadic oases. The country was inhabited by Bedouins, pastoral nomads herding camels, horses, mules, goats, sheep. Another major source of income was caravan trade; caravan routes crossing the peninsula, from the coast of Yemen to the Mediterranean were part of a wast trade network connecting the Mediterranean with India and China. The Bedouin supplied the beasts of burden for this trade; camels can go 10-20 days without water. The oases were essential for the caravan trade, providing water, shadow, food and protection. Mecca was such an oasis town, ruled by a city council in which the wealthiest families engaged in caravan trade were represented. The Qaaba, a temple within the city of Mecca, housed altars to 300 deities. The city councillors of Mecca believed this to be good for trade; every merchant coming to Mecca could pray to his own god. The Emergence of Islam . Muhammad ibn Abdullah was born c. 570 A.D.; he was a merchant, who, according to Muslim tradition, in c. 610 began to have revelations. Because he preached about his revelations, in Mecca he was regarded a troublemaker, and expelled from the city (622 A.D.; this event marks the year 1 A.H. in Muslim chronology). After having spent time in the desert as an ascetic, he was invited by inhabitants of Yathrib (= Medina) to come to their town and restore peace between rival factions. He did, and the inhabitants of Medina converted to Islam. From the 620es onward, Islam was both a religion and a state. While Islam tolerated book religions such as Christianity and Judaism, it was hostile toward polytheism and animism. Messengers were sent to the neighbours of Islam, informing them about Muhammad's revelations and calling upon them to convert. If they refused, war against them was regarded justified. By 630, much of the Arab peninsula was under Muslim control; Mecca surrendered in 632, recalling Muhammad. In this early period, numerous Muslim traditions were shaped, such as the ban against alcohol, the canon of the 5 duties of Muslims - to pray five times a day, to cleanse himself before prayer, to give alms to the poor, to fast during the holy month of Ramadan and to visit the holy sites in Mecca and Medina once in his lifetime (the Hajj). The Muslim law permitting every man to have four legal wives is suggested to have been instituted because, after one military campaign (or several), losses were heavy and numerous widows needed to be taken care of. The Shariah (traditional Muslim law), by many Muslims, is regarded part of divine revelation. The Caliphate; Muslim Schism . Muhammad died in 632 A.D.; he was succeeded by Abu Bakr, the first Caliph. The Caliphate, as the Muslim state is called, entered on a rapid course of expansion; in the 630es and 640es, Syria and Egypt were taken from the Byzantine Empire (the inhabitants of cities such as Damascus and Jerusalem regarded the Arabs as liberators and opened their gates), the Persian Empire was conquered. Carthago fell in 695, in 711 Muslim armies conquered Visigothic Spain, in 712 Sindh; in 750 a Muslim army clashed with a Chinese army in the Battle of Talas. During Muhammad's lifetime, his revelations were not written down, this being regarded as a sacrilege. Under the 3rd Caliph, Uthman, they were written down, as the Qur'an (Koran). The question for Muhammad's succession resulted in a major schism. Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali, regarded himself and his descendants the proper successor, and so did, and do his followers, the Shi'ites (After Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali). Ali became the 4th Caliph, but his rule was not generally accepted and he, and his successors had to fight for power. Ali and his sons Hasan and Hussein died in this fight; their opponents, the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750) prevailed. Their capital was Damascus. The Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258); both were Sunni. The Shi'ism long was a non-official denomination; the Fatimid Dynasty (910-1171) was the irst major Shia dynasty. They established their capital at Cairo in 972 and controlled much of Syria as well as the Hejaz. The Caliphate was far too large to remain under effective control of the ruling dynasty in Damascus or Baghdad. The conquest on the frontier was not undertaken at the command of the Caliph, but rather on the initiative of ambitious frontier commanders, such as Tariq, the conqueror of Spain, and often in violation of explicit orders. The provincial governors were, in effect, rulers by their own right, and inherited their office to the next generation, thus establishing dynasties of their own, of which there are too many to mention. Seljuks and Crusaders . In Central Asia, the armies of Islam had come in contact with the Turks; many of the latter converted to Islam and entered into the service of Muslim rulers. In 1071, the Seljuk Turks defeated a Byzantine army and established the Seljuk Empire, which extended from western Anatolia to the Chinese border. While it soon was partitioned among the sons of Sultan Alp Arslan, the appearance of the Seljuks caused Byzantine Emperor Alexius I. to request help from the Catholic World, thus causing the Crusades. The First Crusade (1096-1099) was composed of ambitious, yet barbaric knights who participated at their own expense and were hungry for booty and fiefs to establish for themselves. They had little understanding of the distance they had to travel, of the climate, population, the customs of the country they had vowed to "liberate". Once beyond the Bosphorus, they began fighting, killing indiscriminately, as they cold (or did not want to) distinguish local Muslims, Jews and Christians. When they, against all odds, managed to make in to Jerusalem, and took the city, they killed the entire population. The crusaders established a chain of Crusader States - the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Principality of Antioch, the Counties of Edessa and Tripoli. From the 4th Crusade on, crusades targetted other countries - the Byzantine Empire, Egypt, Tunisia. For Palestine had already been carved up in feudal fiefs; in other regions, European-style feudalism still could be introduced. Overall, the crusaders were more of a nuisance to the Arabs, whose superior culture the crusaders learned to admire. The Europeans learned a lot from the Arabs, how to play chess, the concept of the zero ('Arabic' numerals), nobility in action - Saladin was praised by the minstrels of Europe; the usage of the guitar, chivalry and courtesy etc. The crusader states in Palestine were to last until 1291. Mongols . The real threat to the World of Islam was posed by the Mongols, who in 1258, sacked the city. In a letter to the King of France, Hulagu Khan boasted of having had 800,000 inhabitants killed. The massacre had the desired effect; Aleppo and Damascus did not dare to resist. The death of the Great Khan saved Egypt; Hulagu and the bulk of his army had to retreat to Central Asia to attend a Khuraltai. The Mongol force left behind was defeated by the Mamluks in the Battle of Ain Jalut 1260. The Euphrates, for the next century, formed the border between Mamluk Syria and Mongol Persia. The Mongol Empire soon disintegrated, and the fragment covering Persia is called Il-Khanate (1295-1335). The Ilkhans, Hulagu's successors, converted to Islam. Their Khanate disintegrated in 1335. A Muslim descendant of Genghis Khan, Timur Lenk or Tamerlane, from his capital in Tashkent conquered the former Ilkhanate, and then launched raids against the Khanate of the Golden Horde, the Ottoman Empire and the Sultanate of Delhi, another such devastating raid against China only prevented by his unexpected death; he ruled from 1370 to 1405. After his death, his Empire quickly disintegrated. The Ottoman Empire . Anatolia, in the 13th century, was politically fragmented into numerous Turkish statelets (fragments of what used to be the Seljuk Empire) and a number of Christian states, most notably the Empire of Trebizond (modern Trabzon) and the Kingdom of Lesser Armenia. Among the Turkish statelets, the most important was that of the Ottoman Turks, who settled on the Asian side of Lake Marmara and of the Dardanelles. In 1346 a Byzantinian fleet carried Ottoman troops (who were to aid a contender to the Byzantine throne in a civil war) across the Dardanelles; they never returned. The Ottoman Empire now quickly expanded, both in Europe and Asia. Turkish armies had always been excellent in battle; the reason for states such as the Seljuk Sultanate to vanish so quickly lay in their lack of regulated succession. In the Ottoman Empire this problem was solved; an Emperor (Sultan) was to select, among his sons, an able successor. When the Sultan died, his death was kept secret by palace officials; the selected son would be informed, who then would order his brothers and half-brothers to be strangled. Throughout her 6 centuries of existence, the Ottoman Empire experienced few wars caused by a disputed succession, and no partition. Another problem was the thin Ottoman-Muslim popultion base; the Ottomans lived in a land they had recently occupied; the population they ruled over was Christian. In order to make sure of a sufficient number of soldiers and officials, the Ottomans introduced the Devleti or boy levy : every Christian (or other non-Muslim village) had to deliver, year by year, a certain number of healthy 10-year old boys, which were then raised in Muslim faith and educated in Turkish language. They were to form the Janissary Corps, famous for their fervour in combat. The Ottoman Sultans would routinely, until into the early 19th century, recruit their officials from the Janissaries. The defeat at the hands of Timur Lenk only temporarily resulted in a setback. In the 15th and 16th century, the Empire expanded by a combination of mlitary conquests and voluntary submissions. In 1517, the Mamluks were defeated, Syria and Egypt conquered; in 1538, Iraq was conquered. The Ottoman Empire had grown to become one of the largest the world has ever seen. It was a Muslim, not a Turkish state; numerous non-Turkish Muslims made careers within it, such as the Albanian Köprü;lü family, and Mehmed Ali, also Albanian, the modernizer of Egypt. The Ottoman Empire was organized in millets, religious as well as political communities. Within, for instance, the Greek Orthodox millet, the bishop was responsible for settling law suits as well as for the collection of taxes. There was only one Muslim millet, but numerous christian millets, for the Armenians, Greeks, Bulgarians etc. The strength and raison d'etre of the Ottoman Empire, in the 14th to early 17th centuries, lay in her military capability. The Empire did not have much of an economic policy; it enforced the payment of taxation and believed in the freedom of trade. Except for the production of arms, ammunition and gunpowder, few ininitiatives by the state to establish industries were given. The Ottoman Empire did, though, welcome religious refugees from Europe, such as Spain's Jews. The roads of the Ottoman Empire were in a poor condition. Ottoman provinces or vassall states far from the capital were, for certain periods of history, de facto independent. Janissary garrisons were intended to main control, but on repeated occasions, pursued the personal interests of their commanders. The Ottoman Empire, in the 17th century, had taken to the policy of tax farming in order to secure revenue. Tanzimat Era, Hamidism . The Ottoman failure to take Vienna by siege in 1683 marks the beginning of a long process of decline, in which the Ottoman Empire would suffer a chain of defeats and, piece by piece, cede territory. In the Treaty of Kucuk Kainarji 1774, the Ottoman Empire not only ceded territory to Russia, but conceded to the Czar to regard himself the protector of the Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire. Soon the French were to claim to be protectors of the Catholics in the Ottoman Empire etc. When Napoleon landed his forces in Egypt in 1798 and easily disposed of the Ottoman forces in the Battle of the Pyramids, the necessity of reform appeared obvious. Yet the program of reform based on the French model was begun by Mehmet Ali in Egypt (1805-1840). Ottoman Sultan Selim III. attempted to abolish the Janissaries - only to be deposed and executed. Only Sultan Mahmud II., in 1826, succeedd in abolishing the Janissaries. The Ottoman Empire, in 1839-1876 underwent the period of the Tanzimat Reforms. Tax farming was abolished, a modern tax collection system introduced; the administration of the Empire was reformed, quasi-independent provinces brought back under control; a policy of inducing nomadic tribes to switch to the lifestyle of peasants pursued, successful in western and central Anatolia; institutions of secular higher education established; a new law based on the French Code Civile introduced (granting emancipation to non-Muslims); mandatory military service introduced. Land was to be registered in the name of individuals (hitherto most of the land was regarded possession of a tribe, not of an individual). Railway construction began. The military, of course, was reformed. The Tanzimat reforms were imposed by the administration, not, as in France, the reaction of the administration to demands from the street. Despite the dedication to reform, the Ottoman Empire suffered military defeats at the outset of the Crimean War (1853-1856) and in the Russo-Ottoman War 1877-1878. New Sultan Abdulhamid II. discontinued the policy of reform and even tried to undo some of her achievements, among others by stirring up pogroms against the Armenian minority (Hamidism). Meanwhile, similar pogroms against the Jews of the Russian Empire, stirred up by Czar Alexander III., caused the first European Jews to settle in Palestine. Soon the concept of Zionism emerged, which found wide support among the Jewish community in Europe; Baron Edmond de Rothschild (France) emerged as the most important financial supporter of the movement. Agents of Zionism bought land in Palestine; shipments of Jewish settlers arrived, establishing new settlements of European Jews (often Kibbutzim) among age-old settlements of Arab Palestinians, Muslim, Christian and Jew. Tel Aviv was founded in 1909. In 1908 the Ottoman Empire saw the Young Turk Rebellion; Turkish patriotic officers no longer accepting Hamidism, and pressing for political reform. Yet the Ottoman Empire experienced further humiliation in wars against Italy (1911) and at the hands of Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro 1912. Therefore, it came as a surprise to many observers when the Ottoman Empire, in October 1914, entered World War I as a German ally. World War I . Winston Churchill, Lord Admiral of the (British) Navy, regarded the Gallipoli peninsula an inviting target : the British navy would disembark an army there, which would march on Istanbul, occupy the Straits, knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war and establish a supply line for Russia. Things did not turn out that way; the British forces were blocked by Turkish troops under Mustafa Kemal (later called Atatürk); after having lost 100,000 men, the British reembarked (Dec. 1915). Another British army, which, from Kuwait, marched toward Baghdad, was stopped, forced into the city of Kut-al-Amara, where it had to surrender (April 1916). Attempts to penetrate into Syria from Gaza equally failed. The Ottoman command was concerned about possible Armenian support for the Russians (who launched a major offensive). The order to resettle the entire Armenian population of eastern Anatolia was given; they were treated harshly, and many died on the forced march into inhospitable regions; the event to is referred to as the Armenian Genocide. The number of victime is disputed and ranges between 600,000 and 1,700,000. The Russians did invade and temporarily occupied a large stretch of territory in eastern Anatolia; by 1916 the Ottomans retook the initiative, by 1917 the Russians were expelled from Ottoman territory. When British Lt. Thomas E. Lawrence was dispatched to the Hejaz, his mission was to evaluate the rebellion of the Hashemite Arabs, headed by the Sherif of Mecca, against the Ottoman Empire. Faisal, son of Sherif Husayn, and Lawrence lead a small band of Bedouins through the Nafud desert, persuaded other Bedouins to join in, and took the Ottoman port of Aqaba by surprise. Supplied by the British with money, weapons and ammunition, the Arab Revolt now harrassed Ottoman supply lines. In 1917, with British forces, coordinated with the Arab Revolt, pressing into Mesopotamia and Palestine, the Turks had to retreat. In 1918 World War I ended. While the war was in progress, the British government had entered into an understanding with the French government over the Ottoman possessions in Arabia (Sykes-Picot Agreement, 1915). It also had entered into an understanding with the Sherif Husayn ( Husayn-MacMahon Correspondence, 1916). In order to entice the U.S. to entering the war, in 1917 Britain made the Balfour Declaration, promising to regard with favour the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. These three documents were contradictory; the conflict between British/French and Arab (Hashemite) interests became apparent when the Arabs outsped the British army in a race for Damascus and Beirut in 1918. In the end, Britain claimed Palestine with Jordan, and Iraq with the Mosul region (where the British knew of oil deposits); France Lebanon and Syria. The Hejaz was left under the control of Sherif Husayn. His son Faisal was booted out of Damascus; the British made him King of Iraq (1921), his brother Abdallah King of Transjordan (= Jordan). Turkey . The Treaty of Sevres granted to the Ottoman Empire saw not only the cession of her Arab provinces, but further territorial cessions to Greece (Smyrna/Izmir, Eastern Thrace), Italian protection over SW Anatolia, French protection over SE Anatolia (Cilicia) and the creation of an Armenian state in northeastern Anatolia. The Straits came under Allied occupation. Mustapha Kemal established a headquarter in Ankara, reorganized the Ottoman army, established a Turkish Republic and defeated the forces on Turkish soil, most notably the Greeks in the Battle of Sakarya 1922. In 1923, the Republic of Turkey received international recognition in the Treaty of Lausanne. Mustapha Kemal, now called Atatürk, began a policy of drastic reform. The constitution of the Republic of Turkey foresaw strict separation of religion and state. Ataturk reformed the language, introducing the Latin alphabet. Turkey emancipated her women, who were granted the right to vote in 1935 (by comparison : France 1944). Turkey and Greece agreed on exchanging their respective national minorities. Atatürk is seen as the founder-father of modern Turkey. Following his death, the country turned into a multiparty democracy. Occasionally the army took power in coups d'etat, in response to crisis; regularly, after a few years civilian rule was restored. Turkey is, socially-politically, among the most advanced Muslim countries. She applied for membership in the European Community in 1987. Turkey, in the last couple of decades, has been criticized for the use of torture and the ill-treatment of her ethnic minorities (the Kurds), but has shown a considerable effort in both fields. The establishment of a secular society, the emancipation of women (Turkey had a female prime minister 1993-1996, Tansu Ciller), the modernization of her education are lasting successes of Ataturk's reforms. Economically, the country lags far behind the core countries of the European Union. History of Syria and Iraq . the British and French soon figured out that the mandates over Syria, Iraq and Palestine granted to them by the League of Nations in 1920 were spelling trouble. In 1921 the British annexed the Mosul region into Iraq and turned the latter into a Hashemite kingdom, wehich was formally granted independence in 1932. In Syria, the French experienced the Druze Revolt of 1925-1926. In 1940, Syrian Michel Aflak established the Ba'ath Party, based on an Arab form of Socialism. It stood for political independence, the separation of religion and state, state ownership of certain industries, emancipation of the women, the state taking responsibility for education and welfare. Syria gained full independence in 1946. Representatives of the Ba'ath party came to power in both Syria and Iraq, and implemented Ba'ath policies. In Iraq, the oil wealth helped finance the establishment of a welfare state. In both states, individual politicians managed to turn the political system into a dictatorship; Syria in effect is a dynastic dictatorship. In Iraq, the latter was averted by the US invasion of 2003. History of Arab Oil . Oil was first found in Persia in 1911. During the Paris Peace conference (1919-1920) the British knew of oil deposits at Kirkuk in the Mosul Region, and insisted on this region, initially allocated to France, be transferred to British administration. Oil production there began in 1927. In 1930, oil was found in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. For many years, oil was drilled for and produced by western companies, by western engineers, often living vis-a-vis bypassing Arab Bedouins attached to a century-old lifestyle. Arab rulers such as the King of Saudi Arabia were paid a percentage of the profits, but were excluded from the decision-making process (which, in case of price cuts, affected his revenue). Western industries became increasingly dependent on the flux of gasoline. Iranian PM Mossadegh in 1953 established control of the Iranian oilfields, only to find himself ousted courtesy of CIA and MI5. The Suez Crisis of 1956 caused a shortage of fuel in Europe and made the western dependence on oil apparent. In 1960 OPEC was founded; Kuwait was released into independence. When the U.S., during the Yom Kippur War, openly took sides by supplying Israel with weapons, OPEC introduced oil production quotas for member countries and by doing so caused the Oil Crisis (1973-1981). The oil price went up three to fourfold; a lot of oil revenue came into the region. The oil crisis ended in 1981. The Gulf War (Iraq had invaded Iran in 1980) caused both belligerents to sell oil in excess of their respective quotas in order to finance the war; the oil price returned to 'normal'. History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict . In the 1920es Britain was faithful to the Balfour Declaration and permitted unrestricted Jewish immigration. By the late 1920es, Arab resistance became stronger, and Britain imposed immigration quotas - just as figures of potential immigrants rose, due to the anti-Semitic policies of Germany and other European dictatorships. The quota solution alienated both Jews and Arabs. Among the Jewish organizations preceding the state of Israel were the Histadrut (labour union), the Haganah (promoting immigration, legal as well as illegal), the Palmach (organizing the defense of Jewish settlements), the Irgun and the Stern Gang (both terrorist organizations). In 1935-1938 Palestinian Arabs launched the First Intifada, in protest against contnued Jewish immigration. During WW II, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem stayed in Berlin (Nazi Germany); numerous Jewish residents of Palestine served in the British army. After the war, Irgun and the Stern Gang launched a campaign aiming at bombing the British out of Palestine; in 1947 Britain expressed her intention to leave Palestine. While the Arabs (who made up 2/3 of the population of Palestine) demanded Palestine to be released into independence unpartitioned, the Jews suggested the partition into a Jewish state of Israel and an Arab state of Palestine. The decision, if and how to partition Palestine, was up to the General assembly of the United Nations; it opted for partition (at that time, many Muslim nations were still colonies). The Palestinian Arab leaders, in agreement with Arab politicians from outside Palestine, rejected the Jewish state and vowed to drive the Jews into the sea. Within minutes after the proclamation of the state of Israel, central Tel Aviv found itself under artillery fire. The first Arab-Israeli War (1948) ended in an Israeli victory; Israel expanded her territory; Egypt held on to the Gaza Strip, Jordan to the West Bank. Many Arab residents of what was now Israel had left the country in response to a request by the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem (who wanted them to make room for the Arab armies which were to 'drive the Jews into the sea'). The inhabitants of the village of Deir Yasin, however, ignored the Grand Mufti's call as well as the fact that a war was going on, when Irgun and Stern Gang jeeps entered the village and opened fire indiscriminately, killing 254 out of a population of c.700. This event contributed to the mass exodus of Palestinian Arabs, who settled in refugee camps in Lebanon, Syria and Jordan. The PLO was founded in 1964. In 1967, Israel defeated Egypt, Syria and Jordan in the Six Days' War, occupying the West Bank, Gaza, the Sinai and the Golan Heights. In 1970 the army of Jordan defeated the PLO (Black September) causing the Palestinians (who outnumbered the citizens of Jordan) to move, mainly to Lebanon. In 1973 the Yom Kippur War resulted in a military draw. Negotiations between Israel and Egypt (Anwar as-Sadat) resulted in mutual diplomatic recognition and the return of the Sinai to Egyptian sovereignty. While Israel, for many years, has promoted the establishment of Jewish settlements in the West Bank, on the Gaza Strip and even in the Golan Heights, the country increasingly came under terrorist attacks by the PLO. The Lebanese Civil War (1975-1991) arose out of PLO attacks on Israel, launched from Lebanese territory. Israel retaliated by an invasion of Lebanon (1982), the Sabra and Shatila Massacres 1982, the raid against PLO camps in Tunisia (1985). In 1988 King Hussein of Jordan renounced Jordan's claim over the (Israeli- occupied) West Bank. Yassir Arafat, chairman of the PLO, in 1993, recognized the right of the State of Israel to exist. Numerous attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution have failed due to the opposition to concessions from radicals both on the Israeli and on the Palestinian side. The Palestinian position is recognition of the state of Israel within her pre-1967 borders (78 % of Palestine), while claiming the entire Gaza Strip and West Bank, with the Arab part of Jerusalem (again borders of pre-1967; 22 % of Palestine. Israel is willing to make concessions, including the dismantling of settlements, but demands secure borders; the security wall presently constructed is located within the West Bank. It wants to hold on to Jerusalem and her environs. Other contested issues include the right of the refugees to return. |
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EXTERNAL FILES |
| REFERENCE |
Bernard Lewis, The Middle East. A Brief History of the Last 2000 Years. Simon & Schuster 1995, 433 pp., KMLA Lib.Sign. 956 L673t Albert Hourani, A History of the Arab Peoples, NY : MJF 1991, 551 pp., KMLA Lib.Sign. 953 H841h Franz Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror and his Time, (1953) Princetion UP 1978, 549 pp., KMLA Lib.Sign. 956.1 B114m Jason Goodwin, Lords of the Horizons. A History of the Ottoman Empire, NY : Henry Holt 1998, 352 pp., KMLA Lib.Sign. 956.1 G656l Douglas A. Howard, The History of Turkey, Greenwood 2001, 241 pp., KMLA Lib. Sign. 956.1 H848h Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, (1961) Oxford : UP 1968, 584 pp., KMLA Lib.Sign. 956.1 L673t Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions. The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. University of California Press 1988, 247 pp., KMLA Lib.Sign. 956.92 S165h Arnold Blumberg, The History of Israel, Greenwood 1998, 218 pp., KMLA Lib.Sign. 956.94 B658h Walter Laqueur, Barry Rubin (ed.), The Israeli-Arab Reader. A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict, (1969) Penguins 1991, 704 pp., KMLA Lib.Sign. 956 L317i Halil Inalcik, An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Vol.I : 1300-1600, Cambridge : UP 1994, KMLA Lib.Sign. 956.1015 135e v.1 Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert (ed.), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Vol.2 : 1600-1914, Cambridge : UP 1994, KMLA Lib.Sign. 956.1015 135e v.2 Encyclopædia Britannica, Macropædia, 15th edition, articles Arabia (Vol.13 pp.808-852), Iraq (Vol.21 pp.972-997), Israel (Vol.22 pp.134-148), Jordan (Vol.22 pp.370-379), Lebanon (Vol.22 pp.889-902), Syria (Vol.28 pp.361-375), Turkey and ancient Anatolia (Vol.28 pp.920-973) Gabor Agoston, Guns for the Sultan. Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire, Cambridge : UP 2005, KMLA Lib.Sign. 338.4 A275g Ilan Pappe, A Modern History of Palestine, Cambridge : UP 2004, KMLA Lib.Sign. 956.9405 P218h Philip Robins, A History of Jordan, Cambridge : UP 2004, KMLA Lib.Sign. 956.9504 R657h Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, Cambridge : UP 2002, KMLA Lib.Sign. 953.805 A459h John Freely, Istanbul, the Imperial City. London : Penguin 1996; KMLA Lib.Sign. 949.618 F854i |
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