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The International Peace Conferences, The Hague 1899, 1907
Korean Minjok Leadership Academy
International Program
Kim, Yoon Ki
Term Paper, AP European History Class, Winter 2007
Table of Contents
I. Introduction
II. The World in the Late 19th and Early 20th Century
III. The Hague
IV. The Hague Conferences
V. The Conference of 1899
V.1 Background
V.2 Result
VI. The Conference of 1907
VI.1 Expansion
VI.2 Result and the Next Conference
VIII. Conclusion
VIII. Notes
IX. Bbliography
I. Introduction
The late 19th and early 20th century was a period of confusion for whole world. Many nations in Asia and Africa were suffocating
under Western Imperialism and colonial policy. There were wars and tensions all over the place, eventually providing a ground
for World War I and World War II. Thus it was inevitable that conferences like Hague Convention were held. This paper covers
the overall information about The International Peace Conferences at The Hague (in Dutch : Den Haag) of 1899 and 1907
II. The World in the Late 19th and Early 20th Century
The late 19th and early 20th century was one of the fastest developing periods for whole world. Highly industrialized countries,
especially in Europe, competed for overseas colonies and markets. English and French referred to their empire as a
"civilizing mission" , "la mission civilisatrice." in French and colonized Asia and Africa. Africa had to grow up to enter the flow
of history but anyhow on their account. These new imperialism led to the devastations of many countries in Asia and Africa,
caused by the European's policies. (1)
Technology and science developed day by day. Industrialization had great affect on whole world. One of the most conspicuous
change was transportation, which shortened days to travel across Ocean or between countries. (2)
Most important of all, tensions between nations grew as newly reformed states rose to power under strong leadership, thus
threatening the old power. Unlimited expansion of armament was one of the greatest problems. The whole world was on the
verge of exploding any time.
III. The Hague
From the start of formation of the Dutch Republic, The Hague or Den Haag kept its position as one of the most important
cities in the Low Countries: Economically, socially, and politically. (3) Thus it was not surprising that this
city earned the honor to sponsor the international peace conference to eliminate the cause of tensions. With the conventions
of 1899 and 1907, The Hague constructed peace palace in 1913, firming their image as city of peace (4)
and permanent centre of international law. (5)
IV. The Hague Conferences
The Hague Conventions were international treaties negotiated at the First and Second Peace Conferences at The Hague.
(1899 and 1907) Along with the Geneva Convention, famous convention known for prisoners of war, Den Haag (The Hague
Conference) is among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the nascent body of secular
international law. (6)
The Conference was met to resolve unlimited expansion of armaments, tensions in Pacific, and many other problems
brought up by the time. Although some of the topics settled by conference did rise up again as a problem later, the conference
was an overall success as it set laws of war and called for the needs for international conferences and organizations.
The First Peace Conference of 1899 gave birth to the Permanent Court of Arbitration, an institute for international dispute
resolution. From the conference of 1899, the meeting was decided to be held every 8 years. However, the 1915 conference
failed to meet because of the outbreak of World War I. (7)
V. The Conference of 1899
The first Hague Conference of 1899 brought up issues of international disputes, laws of war and other clauses that deals
with conflicts and peace. It laid a ground for future international treaties and organizations.
V.1 Background
The first conference of 1899 was convened at the invitation of Count Mikhail Nikolayevich Muravyov, the Russian minister
of foreign affairs of Czar Nicholas II of Russia. (8) The representatives of several governments were
convened for meetings to agree upon international standards regarding warfare. (9) Twenty-six
countries in total, gathered from May 18 to July 29 at Huis ten Bosch (the royal residence) to discuss the problems
proposed by Count Muravyov: (i) a limitation on the expansion of armed forces and a reduction in the deployment of
new armaments; (ii) the application of the principles of the Geneva Convention of 1864 to naval warfare; and (iii) a
revision of the unratified Brussels Declaration of 1874 regarding the laws and customs of land warfare. (10)
V.2 Result
The conference went for almost three months, but it was finally signed on July 29, 1899 and entered into force on
September 4, 1900. The Hague Conference of 1899 consisted of four main sections and three additional declarations.
(11)
I - Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
II - Laws and Customs of War on Land
III - Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of Principles of Geneva Convention of 1864
IV - Prohibiting Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons
Declaration I - On the Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons
Declaration II - On the Use of Projectiles the Object of Which is the Diffusion of Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases
Declaration III - On the Use of Bullets Which Expand or Flatten Easily in the Human Body (12)
Although the Conference of 1899 failed to achieve its primary objective: the limitation on armaments, it did adopt
conventions defining the conditions of a state of belligerency and other customs relating to war on land and sea.
Also, three declarations prohibiting the use of asphyxiating gases, expanding bullets, and discharges of projectiles
or explosives from balloons, were adopted. Last, and most important, was the adoption of the Convention for the
Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, creating the Permanent Court of Arbitration. (13)
VI. The Conference of 1907
The Hague Conference of 1907 went deeper into the problems that were presented at the conference of 1899 and
although it was not a total success, there is no doubt that it contributed greatly in world's cognition of importance of
international treaties and organizations.
VI.1 Expansion
The object of the second conference was to expand upon the original Hague Convention, modifying some parts and
adding others, with an increased focus on naval warfare. (14) This conference sat from
June 15 to Oct. 18, 1907, and was attended by the representatives of 44 states, more than that of the first conference.
It consisted of thirteen sections, of which twelve were ratified and entered into force.
VI.2. Result and the Next Conference
The second conference was mainly an expansion of the first and modified sections and declarations that were weak.
A proposal for the limitation of armaments was raised again but failed to gain acceptance. 1899's Declaration I:
prohibiting the discharge of projectiles from the balloons was renewed, but Declaration II and III, Prohibiting the use
of asphyxiating gas and expanding bullets was not reaffirmed. (15) Independently, the convention
of 1907, strongly focused on naval warfare and discussed problems such as, the employment of force for the
recovery of contract debts; the rights and duties of neutral powers and persons in war on land and sea; the laying
of automatic submarine contact mines; the status of enemy merchant ships; bombardment by naval forces in wartime;
and the establishment of an international prize court. (16)
I - The Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
II - The Limitation of Employment of Force for Recovery of Contract Debts
III - The Opening of Hostilities
IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land
V - The Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Land
VI - The Status of Enemy Merchant Ships at the Outbreak of Hostilities
VII - The Conversion of Merchant Ships into War-Ships
VIII - The Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines
IX - Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War
X - Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention
XI - Certain Restrictions with Regard to the Exercise of the Right of Capture in Naval War
XII - The Creation of an International Prize Court [Never Ratified]
XIII - The Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War (17)
The conference which went on for almost four months was finally signed on 18 October 1907 and
entered into force from 26 January 1910. The final act of the conference were the unanimous
acceptance by the delegates of the principle of compulsory arbitration and the stating of a number
of voeux (resolutions), the first of which was suggestion that another conference be summoned in
eight years, thus establishing the concept that the best way to handle international problems was
through a series of successive conferences. (18) The conference
scheduled for 1915 failed to meet as World War I broke out, the conference idea strongly influenced
the creation of the more highly organized League of Nations and United Nations after the war.
(19)
VII. Conclusion
Although Hague Conference of 1899 and 1907, failed to prevent the break out of World War I, the
conference itself has great significance. The conference shows international efforts to protect
peace from tensions and aggressions of the time. The Hague Conference called for organizations
and peace conventions like Geneva Protocol to support humanity even in the midst of the war.
However, we should clearly remember and see the original purpose of the conference: to keep
peace around world. The assembly of nations did not help much to put a stop to increase of
armaments nor tensions, showing the limitations of international treaties and warns of nominal
conferences.
Notes
(1) Harlow 1999 p. 245
(2) McClellan & Dorn 2006 p. 216
(3) Blom & Lamberts 1998 p. 419
(4) ibid.
(5) Article : The Hague, Britannica, Micropaedia p. 615
(6) Article: Hague Convention, from Wikipedia
(7) Article : Hague Convention, Britannica, Micropaedia p. 616
(8) ibid.
(9) Huussen Jr. 1998 p.126
(10) Article : Hague Convention, Britannica, Micropaedia p. 616.
(11) Article: Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), from
Dictionary by LaborLawTalk
(12) ibid.
(13) Article : Hague Convention, Britannica, Micropaedia p. 616
(14) Article: First and Second Peace Conference, from
City of The Hague
(15) Article : Hague Convention, Britannica, Micropaedia p. 616
(16) ibid.
(17) Article: Hague Convention, from
The World War I Document Archive
(18) Article : Hague Convention, Britannica, Micropaedia p. 616
(19) ibid.
Bibliography
Note : websites quoted below were visited in October-December 2007.
1. Ganse, Alexander. KMLA Handbook Modern European History. KMLA, 5th Edition. 2007
2. J.C.H. Blom & E. Lamberts. History of the Low Countries. Berghahn. 1998
3. Mark T.Hooker. The History of Holland. Greenwood. 1999
4. Article : The Hague, in : Encyclopaedia Britannica, Micropaedia. 15th Edition
5. Article : Hague Convention, in : Encyclopaedia Britannica, Micropaedia. 15th Edition
6. Huussen Jr., Arend. Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands. The Scarecrow Press, 1998
7. Israel, Jonathan. The Dutch Republic. Clarendon. 1995
8. Davids and Lucassen. A Miracle Mirrored. Cambridge UP. 1995
9. Article: Hague Convention (1899 and 1907), from
Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Conventions_%281899_and_1907%29
10. Article: Hollow-point bullet, from
Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_point_bullet#History
11. Harlow, Barbara. Imperialism and Orientalism. Blackwell Publisheres. 1999
12. McClellan III, James & Dorn, Harold. Science and Technology in World History,
(Translated into Korean by Jeon, Dae Ho.) . MotiveBooks. 2006
13. Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), from
Dictionary by LaborLawTalk,
http://dictionary.laborlawtalk.com/Hague_Conventions_%281899_and_1907%29
14. First and Second Peace Conference, from
City of The Hague,
http://www.thehague.nl/default.asp?id=2094&ep=286&bp=96&cod=DG-JUSTICE
15. Hague Convention, from
The World War I Document Archive
http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Hague_Convention
16. British Isles : Early 20th Century time line, from
timelines.info, http://www.timelines.info/history/continents_and_countries/europe/western_europe/british_isles/early_20th_century/
17. Article: Permanent Court of Arbitration, from
Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_Arbitration
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