Prof. Alexander Ganse
Kim Hyun Ho
The Impact of Modernization
on
<ABSTRACT>
This special research paper deals with the impact of
globalization or modernization on the city of
The Impact of Modernization
on
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction
II. Body
1. Globalization and its
Consequences: homogenization, particularization, and hybridization
2. Urban Growth of
2.1. Brief
introduction
2.2. The
initial attempts at modernization: 1800~1850
2.3. The
emergence of modern
2.4. The
colonial period: 1880~1950
2.5.
Development and changes after the revolution: 1950~1965
2.6. The new
wave of urban growth: 1965~1980
2.7.
2.8. Duality of
3.
Changes in
3.1. Impact of
modernization on the society of
3.2.
Internal transformation: Changes in
3.2.1.
Brief introduction and description of
3.3.2. 1st stage: Katb al-kitab (Registration of
marriage)
3.3.3.
2nd stage: Preparations for the Farah
3.3.4.
3rd stage: The Farah
3.3.5.
Overall analysis
I. Introduction
The population of the
Before dealing with this external
transformation of
Having lived in
II. Body
1.
Globalization and its consequences: homogenization, particularization, and
hybridization
During the 1980s, the concept of
globalization was used with increasing frequency throughout various fields in
the social sciences. Scholars from different disciplines attempted to define
the concept of globalization and to characterize its impacts on a specific
society. Giddens and Harvey, who made significant contributions to building a
theory of globalization, refer to it as time-space distanciation or time-space
compression that conceives of a stretching and deepening process in the social
interactions and relations of people. In other words, in the globalized
society, distance is no longer a problem for communication between individuals
all over the world. As a result, goods, knowledge, images, cultures, fashions,
stars, and beliefs from one part of the world may have significant consequences
for individuals and communities in other distant parts of the globe. Thus,
globalization could be described as a complex network and interconnections that
transcend boundaries and nations in the contemporary era. However,
globalization has varying impacts on different individuals and groups,
according to the degree of exposure to external influences and to the degree of
willingness to accept them. This is usually determined by various factors such
as class, gender, and religion. In this respect, it could be noted that
globalization is not only imposed from the outside, but is also absorbed from
the inside.
The impacts of globalization on culture could
be categorized into three slightly different ideas according to the way the
global and the local culture come into contact with each other: homogenization,
particularization, and hybridization. First, homogenization refers to the
process of cultural integration within which people accept the prevailing or
standardized external culture and assimilate into it. The homogenization of
culture is often used interchangeably with cultural imperialism. However, some
oppose this view and contend that a mutual influence and exchange are taking
place between the core and peripheral nations.
The second approach to understanding the
impacts of globalization is particularization. According to this perspective,
individuals and groups adhere to their own cultural traditions and resist the
trend of globalization. Individuals and groups would keep their culture sealed,
intact, and homeogenous, maintaining the steadfast boundaries separating it
from others. Anti-globalism, cultural fundamentalism, and cultural nationalism
are the terms related to this category.
Finally, the third approach to understanding
outcomes from the impact of globalization on culture is through the notion of
hybridization. Hybridization signifies the intermingling process of the global
and the local culture, creating a third novel one. According to this theory,
there is no longer anything absolutely foreign, and there exists no longer
anything exclusively indigenous or local either.
2. Development of
2.1 Brief introduction
2.2. The initial attempts at
modernization: 1800~1850
As the nineteenth century began,
An amazing fact is that more than 400,000
construction workers were once employed by the Pasha to labor on various
government projects. Some major destructions were undertaken to create space
and materials for the Pasha's ambitious new plans. The government also took the
responsibility of improving the road system, because almost every street in
2.3. The emergence of modern
If the initial period was a fledgling stage
which showed prospects for future changes, the period between 1850 and 1880
could be described as a kind of a catalyst that sped up the process. The major
change was the sudden influx of foreigners pouring into
The first of these newly built districts was
Ismailiya, which was planned by a French architect. Consequently, European
features and architecture that contrasted with the Islamic environment were first
introduced in
As foreigners controlled increasing
proportions of the financial and land markets,
2.4. The colonial period:
1880~1950
Broadening European influence over the second
half of the nineteenth century eventually culminated in the establishment of a
British colonial administration in 1882, which would continue until 1922. The
1882 census data tells that out of a total population of 374,000 in
The colonial period saw even larger increase
in the number of Europeans, mostly British. As a result, a rapid or almost
explosive development of new residential areas took place with huge amounts of
foreign capital flowing in to invest in this urban development. Transportation
network also improved greatly with the advent of the electric tramways and the
building of bridges across the
Map:
However, these developments and improvements
were inevitably accompanied by the introduction of industrial slums. Nearby,
the area called Bulaq in the northern part of
By 1927,
2.5. Development and changes
after the revolution: 1950~1965
After another Coup d'etat in 1954, President
Nasser's administration was in power. His policies focused primarily on
national economic and social development. However, he seemed to have no clue to
the booming population that was doubling from three to six million in less than
twenty years.
After the July Revolution of 1952, the number
of foreigners in
More dramatic population movements within the
city continued to take place and led to greater disparities between the two
parts of the city: the older quarters characterized by poverty and
obsolescence, and the new districts with their modern buildings and various
novel services for middle- and upper-class. In order to combat these worsening
problems, the so-called master plan for
2.6. The new wave of urban
growth: 1965~1980
With the adoption of Intifada policy, urban
growth and modernization of
2.7.
Because of this unceasing population growth,
the expansion of
Although the modernization or urbanization
has induced many positive effects, its negative impact is very intense, too.
The modernization process has seriously exacerbated the city's infrastructure.
The city's water supply, sewage system, waste and garbage disposal, and
transportation systems are completely inadequate and outdated to meet
Transportation and communications are also
notorious problems in this great city. Age, inadequate maintenance, and lack of
government's efforts have affected the quality and efficiency of the transport
system. Traffic congestion is severe, compounded by narrow roads in the city
and a serious disregard of traffic regulations by vehicles and pedestrians
alike. Here is a helpful excerpt from Amin Galal's book describing the traffic
jam in detail:
"The traffic congestion is an extremely
serious problem in
However, other than these problems, some
experts view the alienation as the most serious problem entailed by
modernization. This is not only a dilemma for
2.8. Duality of
The apartment building in which I lived for
the last two years in
3. Changes in
3.1 Impact of modernization on
the society of
Experts tend to attribute the abrupt and
somewhat disturbing social, political, economic, and cultural change to the
open door policy (Intifah) initiated under President Sadat in the mid-1970s,
and to the large-scale migration of Egyptian laborers to the Arab states of the
Gulf region that began around the same time. However, in my opinion, the July
Revolution of 1952 was the real factor that sparked of the modernization of
Modernization's most significant impact could
be that it put Cairenes under a massive Western influence. Even though the
Egyptians, like most other Arabs, have comparatively ill or hostile feelings
towards
Because of heavy Western influence which was
enhanced by modernization, Cairenes have come to adopt many western ways of
thinking. The primary factor behind this phenomenon might be numerous foreign
schools in
To demonstrate an instance how the
modernization has affected the attitudes and the material values of Cairenes,
private cars would proviced an easy and prominent evidence. The father of my
friend, Ahmed, told me about this change. In 1940s and 1950s, the bus was a
comparatively convenient and cheap means of transport for most Cairenes. Until
the mid-1960s, the idea of owning a private car never occurred to him. However,
after coming back to
In the next part, I will continue to explain
the internal transformation cause by modernization by extensively and
thoroughly demonstrating the change in
3.2 Internal transformation:
Changes in
3.2.1
Brief introduction and description of
Most weddings in the Muslim society consist
of two parts: the katb al-kitab, the ceremony at which the marriage is
registered to the government; the farah, the actual wedding reception,
after which the couple is considered formally married. In general, the katb
al-kitab takes place in the mosque or at the home of the bride's parents.
The ceremony is held either on the same day as the farah, or several
months beforehand. As for the farah, unlike the past when it was usually
held in the bride's residence, the middle- and upper-class in
As we can witness from the Egyptian films and
television programs, weddings in
These typical western style weddings began to
gain popularity during the earlier processes of modernization and
westernization since several decades ago. The influence of easy Internet access
and of foreign films and magazines, as well as other globalized communicative
mechanisms obviously have had a significant impact on
In order to properly and thoroughly
investigate the changing patterns of wedding in Cairo due to modernization, I
have categorized the marriage patterns into those of two generations: those of
the parents who were married before infitah, Egypt's Open Door policy under
which more westernized and globalized thinking started to flourish in the
1970s; those of their children who are currently of marriageable age or
recently married. Also, I have divided the typical Egyptian wedding ceremony
into Katb al-Kitab (registration of marriage), preparation of the Farah, and
the Farah.
3.1.2
Katb al-kitab (Registration of marriage)
In the past, katb al-kitab, the formal and
official registration of marriage, took place in the home of the bride's
parents and was mediated by a maudhun. It is also called 'aqd al-nikah
(knotting of the marriage) in the sense that the registration procedure binds
the two families together. Once the contract is signed in this ritual, the
couple are announced as being legally husband and wife. However, they do not
live together until they have had the farah. Today, the katb al-kitab
is typically held in the mosque or clubs rather than in the home of the bride's
parents. Otherwise, the current katb al-kitab remains more or less
the same as the one carried out almost two centuries ago.
However, there is one significant difference.
There are two ways of performing the katb al-kitab ceremony. In the more
traditional type, men and women are segregated during the ceremony. In the
other modern or contemporary type of katb al-kitab, the sexes are mixed.
Among the segregated and mixed katb al-kitab, I will briefly introduce how the
latter is carried out. At a mosque in Nasser City of Cairo, men and women
interact freely. Before the ceremony takes place, people exchange greetings
with each other. The ceremony soon begins when the representatives of the two
families taking part in the signing of the marriage contract have taken their
seats at a long table. There are the two witnesses from each family, the groom,
the madhun, the bride's father, and the bride. Each takes turn to sign
the marriage contract. Once the signing is finished, the sheikh addresses the
guests, stressing the holiness of the marriage. As soon as the sheikh finishes
his speech, the bride's father and the groom make an oath, with their hands
clasped and their thumbs pressed together. The father and the groom repeats
after the sheikh one of the important forms of marriage, the ijab
(offer: I marry you to my daughter) and the qbul (acceptance: I have
agreed to marry her). This exchange of vows is followed by the sheikh's
recitation of verses from the Qur'an, which are repeated again by the bride's
father and the groom, and then by the guests. Then, happy feast begins with
guests enjoying various foods. And the bride and the groom take photos to
commemorate the day.
The couple chooses either the segregated or
mixed style of the katb al-kitab according to the families' preferences.
It is also noteworthy that, on the day of the katb al-kitab, the
presence of the bride's father is especially important, because of the legal
and religious terms on which he signs the marriage contract as a wali (a
guardian), and also because his presence honours the bride and the family.
3.1.3.
Preparations for the Farah
1. Gender-specific notion
As soon as the couple has completed katb
al-kitab, the couple and the families must prepare for the farah (the
wedding reception). It is after the farah celebration, that the couple
is expected to consummate their marriage and de facto become husband and
wife. In this section, the process of preparing for the Farah is elaborated
with aspects that changed over time.
The expenses associated with the farah
vary according to the quality of venue, the food, and the entertainers such as
a disc jockey, a belly dancer, a singer, a comedian, ballet groups, a zaffah
group(musicians who play for the wedding procession), and bands. Occasionally, the organization of the party generates
heated debates between the families of the bride and groom, since these issues
are related to the pride and reputation of the family. Two families may
disagree over the way the party is organised, how much the family spends on the
farah, especially in terms of the types of entertainment for the guests,
the food, and where to hold the farah.
It is interesting to note that a
gender-specific notion is observed during the preparation of the farah
concerning the degree to which each family is involved in the preparation.
While the bride and the bride's family are more concerned with the careful
planning of the farah and actively participate in the preparations, the
groom and his family are less active in the process. This difference may have
resulted from the idea that the wedding day itself is traditionally referred as
the day more inportant for the bride. Also, men seem to be less interested in
spending the wedding budget on a big wedding reception. Instead, they prefer to
spend in a more practical way such as having a honeymoon abroad.
2. Wedding Planners
Customarily, mothers, along with the bride's
sisters and female friends who had experience of marriage, helped to plan the farah.
Today, however, young men and women discuss their wedding plans with the
professional wedding planners employed by hotels and clubs. Exclusive hotels
offer a range of services to couples who are getting married. These services
include a buffet that can be tailored to different budgets. Apart from
catering, hotels also provide various kinds of entertainment services, including
a zaffah group, oriental dancers, comedians, a photographer, and a DJ,
as well as special equipment for the wedding party such as laser beams and
smoke machines to create special effects during the wedding reception. Some
hotels supply free gifts to the bride and the groom, including several nights
in a luxury suite in the hotel, a khosha (a wreath or flower-decked
chair for the groom and the bride), sharbat (a syrupy drink
traditionally served at weddings), and floral decorations in the hotel corridors.
Magazines are also useful sources of
consultation for a couple planning a memorable wedding. As well as
internationally-circulating magazines, nowadays there are English versions of
local magazines that sometimes include special features on planning special
weddings and honeymoons for a couple. Invariably, many of these emphasize how a
couple can organize a glamorous reception. The articles include the addresses
and telephone numbers of wedding planners, flower shops, dressmakers,
invitation card producers, make-up artists, hairstylists, travel agencies,
wedding photographers, and entertainers, as well as ideal step guidelines to
help young people to create the wedding of their dream.
Like magazines, wedding websites also provide
useful step-by-step guides to help young couples in Cairo to plan the farah.
For instance, it is suggested that the couple begin preparations for the
wedding at least six and up to 18 months in advance of the wedding. The couple
is advised to do shopping for the wedding rings, hosting the engagement party
by the bride's family, identifying the possible wedding date, drawing up the
preliminary guest list, and formulating a preliminary budget during that time.
After the date is established, they are advised to book a venue for the
reception, hire the photographer and entertainers for the ceremony, arrange the
outfits for the wedding and so on.
Since weddings have become more
commercialized as a result of the emergence of the wedding industry, it is also
significant to mention that the traditional role of the mother in planning for
the wedding appears to have diminished. It can also be seen that weddings have
become events that accentuate class differences, since they cleary demonstrate
a family's status as well as the identity of individuals. Thus the growth of
the wedding industry is fuelled almost entirely by the desire of middle- and
upper-class Egyptians preparing for extravagant wedding receptions. The
innumerable models provided by cinema and television have also enabled the
Egyptian middle- and upper-class to organize weddings in emulation of those who
are perceived as better than they are. Generally speaking, therefore, it is evident
that, as a result of seeking advice from wedding planners, the Internet, and
magazines, there is a strong shift towards a preference for weddings that are
global in their style and rituals.
3. Wedding entertainment: zaffah, belly
dancers, and DJs
Traditionally, Egyptian weddings were very
festive, with entertainers (dancers, singers, and musicians) amusing the guests
as well as the families who hosted the occasion for several nights. These days,
entertainment at weddings has become commercialized with the emergence of the
wedding industry in Cairo, and with the expectations and wishes of the expanding
middle- and upper-class who want to meet their westernized and globalized
tastes. In modern Cairo, for example, wealthy
families hire expensive entertainers for the farah to entertain and
impress the guests with their wealth . Types of
entertainers include bands, belly dancers, DJs, zaffah groups, and
comedians. The zaffah groups are the ones who play music and sing songs
for the wedding procession.
Various processions normally take place
before the wedding night. These included the zaffah al-hammam (the
bride's procession to the bath), the zaffah al-gihaz (procession of the
furniture), the zaffah al-arusa (the bridal procession), and the zaffah
sadaate (the gentlemen's procession). Generally, the zaffah al-arusa
is deemed the most important. This procession involves the physical transfer of
the bride to her new residence and an escort of dancers and musicians through
the public streets from her parent's home to the home of the groom, where the
marriage was consummated.
The role of the zaffah was to proclaim
publicly the legal union of the couple and the approval of the families for the
marriage by sing loud songs, playing various musical instruments, and dancing.
However, under the modernization, the traditional ways of zaffah lost
popularity among the upper- and middle-class Egyptians, who considered them to
be vulgar and outdated. Instead, a more modern style of zaffah was born
at the beginning of the 1980s and quickly became an indispensable part of the
receptions. Just as the location of the wedding reception moved from individual
houses to exclusive hotels, the zaffah procession also underwent
changes. Unlike the separate processions performed for the bride and the groom
in the past, today's zaffah commonly proceeds with the bride and the groom
together, from the lobby into the ballroom in the hotels in which the farah
takes place. Also, the current modern style of zaffah troupes is
distinguished by western musical instruments as well as by western lyrics
incorporated into existing zaffah songs.
Most zaffah groups consist of six to
eight members, who exclusively male. Each zaffah group has different
wedding songs, though all the main themes are similar. First, they begin their
song by welcoming everyone. Then, they introduce themselves to the guests,
praise the bride's beauty, pay respects to the bride's parents, and praise the
groom for his goodness and reliability. After a short break, they would
continue their singing to ask the couple to respect their respective
parents-in-laws and the parents-in-laws to respect the couple. Their
performance is finally concluded by offering good wishes to the bride and the
groom.
The tradition of belly dancers at festivals
can be traced back to the 18th century in Egypt. Egyptians generally chose to
bring entertainers, particularly dancers, to the festivals in order to amuse
the spectators. At the same time, however, entertainers were regarded with
contempt and disfavor. The religious authorities and the Islamic scholars
resented this practice, because the dance created an infidel image. During
Sadat's infitah policy in the 1970s, there were many changes to belly
dancing. The opening to the West, the rise of a new class of wealthy
entrepreneurs, and growing prosperity produced flourishing factors and atmospheres
for entertainers. In particular, performances by Egyptian belly dancers at
hotel weddings became a widespread phenomenon from the 1970s. Today, Egyptian
belly dancers along with an influx of foreign belly dancers, especially from
Russia and Greece, have become a familiar sight at any Egyptian weddings.
The influx of foreign belly dancers has
introduced innovative costumes, instruments, and dance movements that have been
incorporated into traditional belly dancing. However, employing a belly dancer
at a wedding was, and still is considered particularly sensitive among those
who are religious. And for some people, belly dancers are viewed with great
apprehension. The image of the pure and virgin bride in the sacred atmosphere
of the wedding conflicts with the image of the belly dancer who is perceived as
polluting the pure wedding. This is mainly because the sexual identity of the
belly dancers symbolizes a lack of honour and respect, and they are even seen
to be sexually dangerous.
3.1.4 The Farah
Not only the preparation process, but the way
that the farah is celebrated is also transforming with time. The biggest
change that the location of the wedding reception has transferred from the
bride's house to five star hotels, villas, clubs, riverboats, or European-style
outdoor gardens. A wedding planner, called Ummu Sarah, offers several
explanations for this transformation. He argues that the location of the
wedding has changed for entirely practical reasons, including the lack of space
in a house so as to save time and effort and the lack of help in preparing for
the wedding since so many women participate in the labor force. An additional
reason for shifting the wedding from the house to an outside venue is because
people nowadays regard the size of the ceremony as significant. He summed up
that this transformation might have originated from the competitive, imitative,
and emulative nature of consumerism. Also Hatim, one of my Egyptian friends
living in
"In the past, the farah was very
simple. But nowadays, people want to show off and compete with their neighbours
and relatives. Television has also influenced people to make the farah
as luxurious as possible. For example, there is one programme on Channel Four that
shows people how to organize farah. It actually persuades people
indirectly to follow the way that they are showing.
To give you a more picture of how the Farah
actually changed, I will describe one of the wedding receptions that I visited
When the couple reached the khosha,
the waiters brought a yellow-coloured drink called sharbat to the bride
and groom, which I found out was the traditional drink to be served at a
wedding. Later, the couple moved onto the dance floor, where they danced in
front of the guests to popular songs, such as those by one of the most popular
Egyptian singer, Amr Diab. When the couple had finished the first round of
dancing, male and female guests soon came down to join them on the dance floor.
Encircling the couple, the guests sang and danced. After about two hours when
all of the guest were feeling tired, an invited singer started to sing to the
background music of a band. Then, it was the turn of a belly dancer. Male
guests on the whole seemed to be amused by the seductive movements of the
dancer, but it was funny how the groom rarely looked at the dancer lest he
should make his bride jealous on their wedding night.
When all the entertainers had finished their
performances, a huge wedding entered slowly toward the groom and the bride,
engulfed with smoke and highlighted by laser beams to give special effects to
the cake-cutting ceremony. It was a spectacular scene. The cake-cutting ritual
was followed by the opening of the buffet bar. It was around 1:00 a.m. Another
round of dancing followed the dinner, and the farah ended around at two
or three o' clock in the morning.
Other wedding receptions held in hotels
generally follow this order. A package wedding at a hotel means that
professional wedding planners take control of organizing the wedding reception
from start to finish. By purchasing a wedding reception package, the couple and
the guests will be fitted into the pre-designed programme and will be
controlled by the instructions of the technical staff, including a wedding director,
a DJ, and a cameraman. Through this, both customers and providers follow the
steps of a procedure that has been designed or determined and standardized in
order to produce the best and most memorable wedding, even though it serves as
the same style of wedding for all other the newly-married couples in Egypt.
This change is not only the effect of the commercialization of the wedding
industry, but also the globalization.
The style of a wedding seems to have its own
fashion trends over time. Sometimes external elements from foreign wedding
styles are introduced and localized, thus creating a third new wedding culture.
In some cases, traditions are invented or a totally new trend created in order
to suit the tastes of today's young couples. For example, as described before,
global influences are evident in current weddings held in Cairo, such as the
dress of the bride and groom, child bridesmaids who escort the bride and the
groom into the hall, the cake-cutting ceremony, and the throwing of a bouquet
to unmarried friends. However, the long-standing tradition like employing
entertainers such as musicians, dancers, and singers at the wedding still
continues along with these changes.
Apart from the introduction of global
elements into the conventional concept of a wedding, the current Egyptian
wedding style is significantly articulated with a hybridized wedding ritual
that is neither foreign nor indigenous. For example, a recent trend is that
foreign, especially western belly dancers and modernized zaffah,
equipped with a mixture of western and local musical instruments and lyrics,
appear at the wedding ceremony. In addition, a totally new tradition of
employing a disc jockey has been invented and has become established into the
today's wedding culture. Therefore, the distinction between what is the local
and the global seems to be blurred in the contemporary wedding style in Cairo,
thus leading to a hybridization of indigenous and foreign wedding cultures. As
I described from the section where three different impacts of the globalization
were explained, the today's cultures are extremely interconnected and
intermingled with one another. Through this hybridization of the wedding, the
boundaries between local and global wedding is becoming ambiguous.
3.3.5.
Overall analysis
I have explored how today's wedding
ceremonies have changed from those of the parents' generation or even as early
as 19th century. Marriage in
During the wedding preparation, the bride and
her family are much more actively involved in the wedding preparations than are
the groom and his family. While brides prefer to spend a relatively large sum
of money on the wedding party, grooms prefer to spend money in more practical
ways, such as on a honeymoon abroad. Today, professional wedding planners have
gradually replaced the role of the bride's mother, planning the farah in
all details.
Wedding reception in Cairo today seem to be
an occasion in which such various dimensions as global/local,
modern/traditional, western/Islamic, and foreign/authentic aspects are
intertwined along with the mixture of the three categorizations of
globalization (homogenization, particularization, and hybridization). The
process of homogenization explains how Egyptian style of weddings resemble
typical wedding rituals elsewhere. However, weddings in Cairo are distinguished
from weddings in other parts of the world in the way the wedding party is
celebrated with various professional wedding entertainers, including belly
dancers, comedians, and DJs, as well as zaffah groups. Thus, homogenized as
well particularized elements of wedding are emerging and expanding today in
order to suit the tastes of young couples who are influenced by television
programmes, films, magazines, and the Internet. In this context, evolving taste
as well as expectation among the middle- and upper-class Cairenes caused by the
modernization are resulting in the hybrid form of western and global, as well
as indigenous and local styles.
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*Map:
from The Aga Khan Award for Architecture
Seminar "The Expanding Metropolis Coping with the Urban Growth of
Cairo" held in