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Narratives : New States http://www.zum.de/whkmla/sat/texts/narrnewstates.html |
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Definition : Popular chapter title in American textbooks of European history. The states dealt with there are not new at the historical time at which they are covered, but rather managed to gain historical significance beyond their borders, became important players in the context of European history. Sweden : Kingdom, from 1397 to 1523 claimed, and temporarily ruled by Denmark (Union of Kalmar). Sweden, in 1523, included Finland, but Skåne (Scania) and Gotland then belonged to Denmark. Independence was restored in 1523; Lutheran Reformation introduced in 1527. Sweden (with Finland) had an estimated population of c. 1,000,000 inhabitants, the population mainly living in the countryside; the country's largest city, Stockholm, had c. 10,000 inhabitants. Sweden was a major producer of iron and copper. In the course of the 16th century, Sweden, under the Wasa Dynasty, consolidated herself. Under King Gustavus II. Adolphus (1611-1632), a military reform was introduced. Sweden quickly rose to the status of a major military power, achieving victories over Russia (1617), Poland (1621-1629), being a dominant force in the 30 Years' War (1630-1648), defeating Denmark (1643-1645). Sweden had good, disciplined soldiers, good military leaders, but lacked the economic structure which allowed her to maintain an armed force in peacetime. In order to maintain the status of a Great Power, Sweden needed to be at war; the occupied lands, and perhaps subsidies paid by her allies, would finance the undertaking. The wars under Gustavus Adolphus, and those fought while Axel Oxenstjärna was regent for Queen Christina (5 years old at the time her father died) brought territorial acquisitions - Ingria, Livonia, Hither Pomerania, Gotland etc.; Sweden established the Dominium Maris Baltici - at the expense of her neighbours (Poland, Russia, Denmark- Norway) which would wait for an opportunity to pay the Swedes back, not just for the territory the wedes had taken from them, but also for the rough treatment Swedish soldiers had given their land under occupation. Another problem was the existence of a Catholic branch of the Wasa Dynasty, holding on to the Polish throne (1587-1672). An offspring of the Swedish royal dynasty, the Polish Wasas, if they acquired the military force to back it up, could reclaim the Swedish throne and, if successful, could introduce the Counterreformation. So the Swedes regarded Poland their archenemy. Under Gustavus II. Adolphus and Axel Oxenstjärna steps were undertaken to modernize and develop Sweden. Universities were founded, books acquired in Central Europe (often simply confiscated by the Swedish armies), metal workers and other craftsmen invited into the country. The city of Göteborg (1632) was founded, to give Sweden access to the North Sea - rival Denmark controlled the Sound. Oxenstjärna and Queen Christina - the philosopher Queen - invited a number of famous scholars to Stockholm, Rene Descartes, Jan Amos Comenius, Samuel von Pufendorf. Christina shocked her country by announcing her decision to abdicate (1654); she left for Italy and converted to Catholicism. Her successor Charles X. fought another war, the First Northern War (1655-1660) which devastated Poland and gained Scania for Sweden. Charles XI., in 1675-1679, militarily lost a war against Brandenburg and Denmark, and because of French protection got away with minimal loss. Afterward, he introduced absolutism to Sweden; when he died in 1697, his son Charles XII. was merely 15 years old. Denmark, Russia, Poland saw the opportunity for payback, but young Charles XII. was a military genius, in the Great Northern War 1700-1721, despite multiple enemies, Sweden until 1709 kept the upper hand. The Battle of Poltava 1709 brought a decisive Swedish defeat; Sweden no longer could afford to pursue the policy of a Great power. Click here for more detailed files on the history of Sweden
Austria : In many history books covering the period 1556 to 1867, the term "Austria" is used to describe the complex of territories ruled by the Austrian line of the Habsburg Dynasty. Click here for a seris of maps on the history of the Austrian Habsburg's lands. In contemporary documents, the Austrian rulers would sign as Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia, Hungary, Croatia, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Styria, Count of Carinthia, Carniola, Marchgrave of Moravia etc.. Each one of the territories listed had its own institutions, privileges, traditions. The Habsburgs did establish a central administration seated in Vienna, which coexisted and competed with territorial institutions. This complex of territories had been the result of centuries of Habsburg diplomacy, in which marriage policy had ben more important than warfare, according to the family motto "Felix Austria, nube !" (lucky Austria, marry !). Habsburg Austria, in the mid 16th century, was not really a new power; the Habsburgs had acquired Austria in 1288, held the Imperial crown since 1438. However, until the reign of Charles V., the vast complex of territories, under Charles V. including the Low Countries, Castile, Aragon, Naples, Milan, Franche Comte, lacked a political center, a capital. Charles V. frequently had to travel, from Madrid to Innsbruck to Brussels and back. Rather, the Ottoman threat and the necessity to consolidate Habsburg rule over recently acquired, but notoriously unruly Bohemia forced the Habsburg family to establish a permanent residence and capital, for which they chose Vienna. This task was performed by Charles V.' brother Ferdinand in c.1530, long before Charles V. in 1556 determined to split the Habsburg dominions into a Spanish and an Austrian half, the latter going to Ferdinand. While the Austrian Habsburgs had a hold on the title of Emperor and thus outranked all other monarchs in Europe, by comparison to other Great Powers of the time they were at a disadvantage. The proximity of the Ottoman Empire required military preparedness. Many of the Austrian Habsburg territories economically were poor, most notably the Alpine territories. Economically most productive were the Bohemian lands, which combined fertile soil with a mining and textile industry etc. Another aspect was the religious situation. While the Habsburg Dynasty was Catholic, the population of their core territory of Austria, in the mid 16th century, was, to c.90 %, Lutheran. The Bohemian Lands, since the early 15th century, had developed into a religious caleidoscope. The early Austrian Habsburg rulers were careful not to enforce the Counterreformation (except for the line residing in Graz/Styria, since the 1570es), but during the 30 Years War, they did. The Counterreformation turned the Austrian Habsburg's lands into Catholic lands, by forcing many protestants to emigrate, others to convert; the process caused a few rebellions little noticed, because they happened during the 30 Years' War. Many of those who emigrated were craftsmen, some, in modern terms, entrepreneurs; the religious priority of Habsburg policy had an impact on the economy of her lands. The Thirty Years' War started an era of European diplomacy and wars; the Austrian Habsburgs were forced by circumstances to play the role of a military Great Power, which they hardly could afford. The Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs were allied by family ties, France and the Ottoman Empire were their usual enemies; in case of all other states it was a matter of diplomacy. Until 1683, the Austrian Habsburgs were satisfied if they could hold their ground and prevent their territories to break away (rebellions). Hungarian rebels in 1683 called for Ottoman aid, and the city of Vienna found herself under siege. The siege went on for several months, the situation in the city became desparate. Then, four relief armies appeared - three German, one Polish, and the Ottoman forces were defeated in the Battle of Kahlenberg, the victors commanded by Polish King Jan Sobiesky. The war would last on until 1699, the Austrian side pushing deep into Ottoman territory. In 1699 (Peace of Karlowitz), Austria gained Transylvania, Hungary except for the Banat and territory in Croatia; the war roughly had doubled Austrian Habsburg territory and removed the immediate threat the Ottoman Turks had posed to the capital of Vienna. Much of the military success was credited to Prince Eugene of Savoy. Click here for more detailed files on the history of the complex of territories ruled by the Austrian branch of the Habsburg Dynasty
Prussia : A narration of Prussian history has to begin with the core territory of Brandenburg. One of the largest territories within the Holy Roman Empire. The rulers of Brandenburg, since 1356, held one of the seven seats on the electoral council. In all other aspects, Brandenburg was poor - poor farming country (sandy soil), no mining industry, no seaports, cities of secondary importance (and that included Berlin, which only grew to significance in the 18th century). Since 1415 the Zollern Dynasty, by historians of the early 19th century renamed Hohenzollern, ruled Brandenburg. During the Thirty Years' War, Brandenburg had suffered severe devastation. In 1618 the Marchgrave of Brandenburg had gained the Duchy in Prussia by the means of inheritance. The Treaty of Westphalia granted further additions to the Elector of Brandenburg - Further Pomerania and the prospect of acquiring the Stift Magdeburg. Marchgrave Friedrich Wilhelm (the Great Elector), who ruled from 1640 to 1688, wanted to prevent the experience of the Thirty Years War from repeating itself. The solution to the problem was the establishment and maintenance of a standing army. This army made Brandenburg a sought-after ally in European diplomacy. For the decades after 1648, Brandenburg mostly served as ally to the Austrian Habsburgs, and in turn received Habsburg support in case of a number of contested inheritances of smaller German principalities. In 1701 the Elector of Brandenburg was rewarded (by the Emperor) for his military support by being crowned King in Prussia. As the title of king outranked that of Marchgrave-Elector, the name of Prussia came to be used for the entire complex of territories ruled by the Brandenburg branch of the Zollern Dynasty. Under Frederick the Great (1740-1786) Prussia would rise into the ranks of a Great Power on her own merits, rather than a supplier of forces to others. It has been said, that Prussia as not a state with an army, but an army with a state. The Great Elector lived a comparatively frugal lifestyle; state expenses were organized in a way reserving the bulk for the maintenance of the army. He also pursued a policy of attracting immigrants to repopulate the vacant farmsteads in the countryside; when France expelled the Huguenots in 1681/1685, the refugees were welcomed in Brandenburg. Friedrich Wilhelm also attempted to stimulate the urban economy. Under him a Brandenburgian Africa Company was founded, which, from the port city of Stettin, traded with the Gold Coast. Click here for more detailed files on the history of Brandenburg-Prussia. Russia : geographically on the margin of Europe, Russia had largely been isolated from western and central Europe. In 988 it had accepted Orthodox Christianity; while western and central Europe focussed on Rome, Russia focussed on Constantinople; the west used the Latin alphabet, Russia Cyrillic. From 1240 into the 15th century, the various Russian principalities had paid tribute to the Kipchak Tatars (the Golden Horde), which disintegrated in the 15th century. While the western Russian principalities (including Kiev) were annexed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the northern and eastern Russian principalities were annexed by the Grand Duchy of Muscovy. In 1547, Grand Duke Ivan crowned himself Czar of all the Russias. In Russia called Ivan the Great, in the wst he is known as Ivan the Terrible. English merchants, via the port of Arkhangelsk on the White Sea, supplied him with gunpowder; he used it to fight wars in all directions; Russia conquered the Khanates of Kazan 1552 and Astrakhan 1556 (and later Sibir, in 1582); in the west Russian armies devastated Livonia and eastern Lithuania. However, Ivan had his own son tortured to death, and upon Ivan's death in 1584, Russia was without an heir to the throne. The country descended into a civil war in which several noble factions, some with foreign support, competed for the throne (Time of Troubles). In 1613, Mikhail Romanov was crowned, beginning the Romanov Dynasty which would last until 1917. For most of the 17th century, Russia remained a country rather isolated from the remainder of Europe, occasionally involved in wars with Sweden, Poland-Lithuania or the Crimean Khanate/Ottoman Empire, supplying Europe with products such as fur, honey, beeswax, rather passive in terms of trade as Russia lacked permanently ice-free ports and a merchant fleet. The Russian population, for the larger part, consisted of serfs (mushiks). A clear distinction has to be made between Russian serfs and western European serfs; the former often lived so far from the nearest town that they rarely visited it. Often they lived on large estates belonging to Boyars or the church; the serfs were accustomed to being told what to do, and lacked initiative of their own. The cities of Russia were few, communication between them poor (navigable rivers - which froze over during the winter; poor roads). Russian cities lacked the autonomy western and central European cities enjoyed; Novgorod declined after it lost that autonomy in 1478. Similarly, Russian crafts lacked the structure western guilds provided. While technical progress was made in western and central Europe, Russia remained backward. Russia's nobility, the Boyars, owned large estates, lived of the land respectively of their serfs and unlike their English contemporaries (see under Agricultural Revolution), did not worry about how to make their lands more profitable. One way to expand was to take new lands under the plow, Russia had plenty of land to be cultivated. In the border regions to the Crimean Tatars lived the Cossacks, Christian Orthodox Russians living the lifestyle of the Tatars - breeding horses, defending Russia against Tatar raids, occasionally undertaking raids of their own against the Tatars. The Cossacks were free men; they elected their own leaders. They were notorious for violating laws and for being unreliable. The Stroganoff family, when extending their fur collecting lands into Siberia, hired Cossacks to do exploration and fighting; a Cossack was the first Russian to reach the Pacific Ocean. The man to realize Russia's need for modernization was Czar Peter the Great (1696-1725). While still competing for power (his simple-minded brother Ivan also was Czar; his sister Sophia intrigued against him and, for a number of years, was regent) he established his own bodyguard and regiment. He sought foreign teachers and advisors in Moscow's community of foreign merchants. Peter realized that key to modernization was to improve contact with Europe, the pursuance of an active trade policy. Therefore, seaports were essential, as well as a shipbuilding industry, a mining and arms industry. In order to achieve this aim, wars were unavoidable. Peter, incognito, travelled Europe in order to see modern industries first hand and to recruit craftsmen, in Germany, the Dutch Republic, England. He had a fleet contructed on the River Don, which saild down the river and took the Crimean city of Asov (1696; the Russian boats stayed out of reach of the Turkish cannons; Asov was within the reach of the Russian cannons). Russia had access to the sea, but could not make use of it, because the Ottoman Empire could still block any Russian ship at Kerch or Istanbul. In 1697 King Charles XI. of Sweden died, leaving behind his 15 year old son. Czar Peter believed that this was an opportunity, in alliance with Denmark and Poland, to gain costland on the Baltic Sea from Sweden. A Russian army 30,000 men strong laid siege to the city of Narva, in Swedish Estonia; Swedish king Charles XII., with merely 8,000 men, appeared, defeated the Russians and broke the siege, winning all his battles until Poltava (1709). Czar Peter, in 1702, began with the construction of St. Petersburg, on swampland on the banks of the Neva, on land which technically still was Swedish. The victory at Poltava 1709 was decisive, although it took until 1721 until peace was signed, which gained Ingria, Eastern Karelia, Estonia and Livonia for Russia. Like Charles XII., Peter the Great spent much of his time as a ruler in army camps. He imposed his reforms - the establishment of a naval academy, of a shipyard, a mining industry, of a new (western) dress and beard code, without considering the sentiment of the Russians. The Russian clergy despised the foreigners who came into Russia, whom they labelled as heretics. The Patriarch of Moscow and priests charged with the education of Peter's son Alexey tried to teach the latter that Peter himself was posessed by the devil. Alexey got involved in a palace conspiracy, which was uncovered; Alexey was tortured to death. Under Peter, Russia had taken several steps on the road to modernization. Several of her industries were modernized; Russia's nobility would have their children tutored western style (in French, which became the language of the Russian nobility), and adapted the lifestyle and fashion of French nobility. Yet, these changes affected only a tiny minority within Russian society; Russia remained a predominantly agricultural society, lacked an effective system of higher education. Russia did have a respectable army and was drawn into the European wars of the 18th century. After Peter, Russia was ruled by four women - Catherine I., Anne, Elizabeth and Catherine II. (the Great). Under Elizabeth, Russia acquired Alaska (1741); she founded the University of Moscow (1755). Catherine the Great will be dealt with in another chapter. Click here for more detailed files on Russian history |
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EXTERNAL FILES |
| REFERENCE |
Simon Dixon, The Modernization of Russia 1676-1825, Cambridge : UP 1999, KMLA Lib.Sign.: 947 D621t Michael Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, Harlow (Essex) : Longman, Profiles in Power (1973) 1992 [G] |
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