A.) THE ISLAMIC WORLD BEFORE AND DURING WORLD WAR I
The Ottoman Empire, at the height of it's power, stretched from Algeria to the borders of Persia, from the steppes of Ukraine to Yemen. Late in
the 19th and early in the 20th century, it had lost territories to newly independent nation-states on the Balkans and to colonial poers (Tunisia
to France in 1881, Egypt to Britain in 1882, KUWAIT to Britain in 1897, Libya and the Dodekanese islands in 1911 to Italy). France regarded itself
the protector of the Catholic and Maronite Christians living within the Ottoman Empire, Russia the protector of the Orthodox Christians. The
only power not harbouring hunger for Ottoman territory, the only reliable ally was Germany. This explains, why the Ottoman Empire joined the
first World War on the side of the central powers.
Britain seized the opportunity and annexed CYPRUS, which it held since 1878 as an Ottoman tax fief. British and Russian attempts to defeat
the Ottoman Empire were thwarted at al Kut in 1915, Gallipoli, in Armenia in 1915. In March 1917, the British succeeded in taking Baghdad.
Meanwhile, Sherif HUSAYN had revolted against Ottoman rule (ARAB REVOLT), declared HEJAZ independent. His son FAISAL, together with
Briton T.E. LAWRENCE, organized the Arab Army, took Aqaba (June 1917), liberated Damascus (late 1918).
PERSIA, while not a belligerent, had also been a theatre of war. In 1907/09 divided in Russian and British spheres of interest, during World
War I a major Russian supply route ran across Persia. In 1916 the Turks tried to cut it, in vain; in 1918, the Turks conquered western
Azerbaijan. Persia was important because of it's rich OIL FIELDS, exploited since 1911.
B.) ESTABLISHING A POST-WAR ORDER
During World War I, the British Empire fought for it's existence. In order to win additional allies, promises had been made to the Arabs (Mac
Mahon-Husayn Agreement of 1916), to the Jews (BALFOUR-DECLARATION of 1917), and signed the SYKES-PICOT AGREEMENT which
foresaw the partition of the Ottoman possessions in Arabia in British and French spheres of interest. As a result, there were contradicting
claims.
Emir FAISAL established an Arab administration, which ruled most of Greater SYRIA, except coastal regions held by France (LATAKIA. In March
1920 he was proclaimed King of Syria. However, the SAN REMO CONFERENCE allocated Syria as a mandate to France; French troops ousted
Faisal in July, introducing French rule.
According to the same conference, Greater PALESTINE and IRAQ were given as mandates to Britain. The MOSUL REGION with it's largely
Kurdish population was also administered by the British. The Iraqi population strongly resisted British administration. In 1921 the British
proclaimed FAISAL, the ex-king of Syria, King of Iraq, his brother Abdullah Emir of TRANSJORDAN, which was separated from Palestine in 1923.
Both Iraq and Transjordan were autonomous monarchies within the British Empire. The French in Syria also experienced determined
resistance. In 1925 they had to suppress a major revolt. In 1926 they separated LEBANON with it's Maronite Christian majority from Syria. The
Mosul region, contested between Turkey and Iraq, was allocated to Iraq in 1926.
Meanwhile, IBN SAUD, the ruler of NEJD, had conquered the HEJAZ in 1924/25, establishing what was to become the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia.
Attempts to establish a colonial administration in the various Arabian mandates had provoked determined Arab resistance. The 1920es also saw
rising demand for self-determination in the Arab countries of North Africa. In EGYPT, the Waqf Party was founded, which advocated
independence. Egypt was proclaimed an autonomous kingdom in 1922. France had to deal with the revolt of the Rif-Kabyles under Abd el-Krim
in ALGERIA (1925/26). It was suppressed. On India's western border, the new Emir of AFGHANISTAN, Amanullah, fought a war to reestablish
Afghani independence (1919), which the British recognized in 1921.
C.) COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
France, in Syria, attempted to establish French control by supporting rivalism, playing ethnic groups against each other, favoring Aleppo over
Damascus, splitting Syria up in several territories (Syria, Lebanon, Territory of the Alawites).
Britain, in Palestine, attempted to follow a middle course between Jewish demands for unlimited immigration and Arab demands for a stop to
Jewish immigration. In Transjordan, Iraq and Egypt, Britain attempted to rule indirectly. In Iraq, this proved most difficult. The country achieved
full independence in 1930 and joined the League of Nations in 1932. Main goals of colonial policy were to keep military bases in the mandate
countries, for Britain to maintain control over the Suez Canal and of the oil fields, to influence domestic policy by appointing/advising the
respective government. Intellectuals percieved the monarchy therefore as a Colonial puppet. Colonial policy also achieved the fragmentation
of Arabia - before the war, Hejaz, Palestine, Syria, Iraq and El Hasa were united in one Empire. The partition into mandates, as well as the
subpartition of mandates (Syria, Palestine) was conducted against the will of the population. On the other hand, the colonial administration
clearly was unhappy with the situation they found; the Arabs proved too difficult, too resistant to be ruled. For them, the mandates were a very
mixed blessing.
In Italian and French North Africa, a different policy was employed. Italy and France encouraged immigration into the colonies. Having acquired
the colonies earlier, they established a firm control, at least over parts of the colonies. Still, resistance was growing, encouraged by the
successes of the Muslim brethren in Arabian countries.
This page is part of World History at KMLA First posted on September 11th 1999, last revised on November 16th 2004
