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Nations unhappy with foreign monarchs :
Poland under Russia, Prussia/Germany and Austria,
in Historic Encyclopedias
Korean Minjok Leadership Academy
International Program
Lee, Si-eun
Term Paper, AP World History Class, June 2009
Table of Contents
I. Introduction / Historical Background
I.1 Introduction
I.2 Background History of Poland
I.2.1 History before and causes leading to the Polish partitions
I.2.2 The Polish partitions
I.2.3 The Polish crisis at the Vienna Congress
II. Poland under Russia, Prussia/Germany and Austria in Historic Encyclopedias
II.1 Russian Poland in Historic Encyclopedias
II.1.1 Administrative policy
II.1.1.1 Summary of Information
II.1.1.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.1.1.3 Possible Bias
II.1.2 Economic Policy
II.1.2.1 Summary of the articles
II.1.2.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.1.2.3 Possible Bias
II.1.3 Social and Cultural Policy
II.1.3.1 Summary of the articles
II.1.3.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.1.3.3 Possible Bias
II.1.4 Educational Policy
II.1.4.1 Summary of the articles
II.1.4.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.1.4.3 Possible Bias
II.2 Austrian Poland in Historic Encyclopedias
II.2.1 Administrative Policy
II.2.1.1 Summary of the Articles
II.2.1.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.2.1.3 Possible Bias
II.2.2 Economic Policy
II.2.2.1 Summary of the Articles
II.2.2.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.2.2.3 Possible Bias
II.2.3 Social, Cultural, and Educational Policy
II.2.3.1 Summary of the Articles
II.2.3.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.2.3.3 Possible Bias
II.3 Prussian/German Poland in Historic Encyclopedias
II.3.1 Administrative Policy
II.3.1.1 Summary of the Articles
II.3.1.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.3.1.3 Possible Bias
II.3.2 Economic Policy
II.3.2.1 Summary of the Articles
II.3.2.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.3.2.3 Possible Bias
II.3.3 Cultural, Linguistic Policy
II.3.3.1 Summary of the Articles
II.3.3.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.3.3.3 Possible Bias
II.3.4 Educational Policy
II.3.4.1 Summary of the Articles
II.3.4.2 Analysis and Interpretation
II.3.4.3 Possible Bias
III. Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
I. Introduction / Background History of Poland
I.1 Introduction
This paper is intended to examine and discuss the portrayal of Poland under Russia, Prussia/Germany and Austria in
historic encyclopedias. It will first briefly discuss the history of Poland before the Polish partitions. Then it will move on
to analyze the depiction of Poland in articles from three historic encyclopedias. A brief summary of all three articles will
be followed by an individual analysis of portrayal and bias.
The purpose of this paper is to gain an understanding of how Poland under the foreign powers was perceived by studying
its portrayal by the most neutral contemporary source available ? encyclopedias
I.2 Background History of Poland
I.2.1 History before and Causes Leading to the Polish Partitions
Poland, until 1795, had been part of, and largely dominated, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth since 1569. The
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, created by merging the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, had been
one of the largest and most populous countries in Europe before the Polish partitions took place in the 1700s. Its most
distinguishing characteristic was its political system; it was a monarchy in which the king was elected by the nobles
(szlachta), restricting the monarch's power. The Sejm, its legislature, was comprised of these nobles. The Sejm made
use of a notable device in decision-making; the liberum veto.
The liberum veto allowed any member of the Sejm to oppose and nullify all legislation made in a particular meeting.
This device was derived from a system of the Sejm that required unanimous consent of all members in order to make
a decision.
This system proved to be increasingly ineffective and prone to corruption. As one member could cancel the decision of
an overwhelming majority, it was very difficult to pass legislation. Moreover, the system was open to foreign influence
and bribery and easy to manipulate, since bribery of one member was enough to disrupt a session of the Sejm. This flaw
in Poland's political system prevented reform and reinforced maintenance of the status quo, a probable cause in the
Commonwealth's eventual downfall.
The liberum veto caused the nobles of the Commonwealth to be controlled by foreign forces; as a result, it went into a
period of decline caused by an ineffective political system and consequent ignorance of the need to reform. The situation
was exacerbated during the Seven Years' War, when the Commonwealth sympathized with Russia and Austria and
allowed Russian troops to use some of its lands as bases from which Russia attacked Prussia. Frederick II the Great of
Prussia reacted by counterfeiting Polish currency, causing inflation and adding to the problems of the Polish economy. Although in
1764 attempts at major reform were made by Stanis©©aw II, they would soon be reversed by a session of the Sejm in 1767 dominated by
Russian influence. In the Repnin Sejm of 1767, pro-Russian nobles, controlled by Catherine the Great, dictated the
session and forced a new constitution which kept the Commonwealth dependent on Russia. The policies issued by the
Sejm of 1767 along with resentment of Russian intervention triggered the War of the Confederation of Bar (1768-1772).
I.2.2 The Polish Partitions
The War of the Confederation of Bar led Russia, Austria and Prussia to partition the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in
1772, as a diplomatic answer for Prussia and Austria to prevent Russia from expanding too much. Russia acquired territory
along the Polish-Russian border; Prussia gained West Prussia without Danzig, Elbing and Thorn; Austria won Galicia and
pushed its border to the city limits of Cracow. [1]
The following partitions of 1793 and 1795 assigned what was left of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the three powers.
The French Revolution of 1789-1799 left the powers nervous about the reformist movement occuring in what was left of
Poland at the time. When the reformists proposed a new constitution, Polish noblemen asked Catherine the Great to send
troops to reverse the changes. The second partition of Poland resulted in January 1793, in which only Prussia and Russia
participated. Russia acquired the provinces with a Belorussian and Ukrainian majority, and Prussia acquired Danzig, Thorn
and Great Poland. Although the Polish reformists established an army and resisted, they were defeated in October 1794,
and the rest of the Commonwealth was partitioned once more. Russia gained Courland, Lithuania proper, Western Belorussia
and Ukraine. Austria gained southern central Poland, and Prussia gained northwestern central Poland with Warsaw.
[2] The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist as a sovereign state.
I.2.3 The Polish Crisis at the Vienna Congress
Napoleon had recreated a Polish state during his reign; the Duchy of Warsaw. At the Vienna Congress, the question of what
should be done with the Duchy was debated. By the Final Act, concluded on June 9, 1815, most of the Duchy of Warsaw
was granted to Russia, and a Polish Kingdom in personal union with Russia ? Congress Poland ? was created. Prussia was
granted the Grand Duchy of Posen and Danzig, but Prussia and Austria were in general deprived of their previous possessions
in Poland. After the Vienna Congress, Poland was divided within Russia, Prussia and Austria as Congress Poland, the province
of Posen, and province of Galicia respectively.
II. Poland under Russia, Prussia/Germany and Austria in Historic Encyclopedias
This paper will discuss articles from three encyclopedias - Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog, Meyer's Konversationslexikon,
and Nordisk Familjebok. Nine articles, three for Congress Poland, German Poland, and Austrian Poland respectively, will be
examined and analyzed. Also, the terms Congress Poland and Russian Poland, Posen and German Poland, and Galicia and
Austrian Poland will be used interchangeably.
II.1 Russian Poland in Historic Encyclopedias
II.1.1 Administrative Policy
II.1.1.1 Summary of Information
According to the articles, after Vienna, Congress Poland was placed under a personal union with Russia, with the Czar of Russia,
Alexander I, as king. However, the constitution granted to Congress Poland guaranteed a separate administration and a stadholder
was appointed by the Czar to administrate Poland. Under the stadholder a council of 8 was responsible for administration. A state
secretary of Poland had a place in the cabinet in St. Petersburg as well. Under Alexander I, the Polish were provided with able
ministers, and granted freedom of the press etc,. However, the situation changed in 1830, when an insurrection occurred in Poland
which deposed Czar Nicholas I as King of Poland. Nicholas I then abolished the former constitution and issued the Organic Statute of
1832. The Polish army and diet were abolished, and Russian influence strengthened in the area. However, Poland was still to be
administrated as a "kingdom", separate from Russia, and Polish remained the official language.
Later, in yet another rebellion in 1863 the Poles rose up again, which called among the Russian rulers for more change in the
administration of Congress Poland. As a result, the Polish administrative council was dissolved along with other central authorities,
and its departments were placed under the ministries in St.Petersburg. In 1868 Congress Poland was completely incorporated into
the Russian Empire, and lost its separate administration as kingdom.
II.1.1.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Polen
The writers of the article regard administration under Alexander I with general approval, stressing the 'responsible ministers'
[3] the Polish were provided with, the freedom of the press, and other positive aspects of the administration.
Its diction suggests a possible sympathy towards the Poles, calling the insurrection of 1830-1831 an 'unlucky rebellion'
[4]. The article possibly expresses a negative opinion towards Czar Nicholas I, his incorporation of Poland
into the Russian Empire, and his possible use of the rebellion as an excuse to curtail the autonomy of the region.
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Polen
About the administration of Congress Poland Meyer¡¯s provides minimal information, regarding the incorporation of the area into
the Russian Empire after the rebellion of 1863. It does not discuss the differences the Organic Statute of 1832 brought about,
such as policy on the education of the Russian language.
Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Polen
In the sections where the article provides an overall summary of the administration of Congress Poland, it attempts to maintain
a critical stance about both Russians and Poles. Both Alexander I and Nicholas I's administration of Poland is regarded with a
slight disapproval, suggesting that both were somewhat inept at administrating Poland, pursuing policies that did not please the
Poles. It mentions something the former articles didn¡¯t; that Alexander I had, as Nicholas I did, issued a policy that undermined
the constitution granted by the Vienna Congress, cooling relations between him and the Poles around the later years of his reign.
In this section the article is notably more critical than the former two, also describing the Poles as noncompliant and stirring
discontent among Russian rulers. Both sides are described as faulty in marring relations.
However, when the article describes with more detail the Russian administrative policies toward the Poles, it becomes more
opinionated. The vocabulary used in listing Russian policy after 1830 has negative connotations. Two such words are 'repression',
and 'suspicion'. [5] They are used to describe the attitudes of the Russians in their restoration of order
in Poland. Although the article is not openly critical, the extensive discussion of Russian policies of 'repression' indicates a possibly
negative view towards Russia.
In writing about the administration of Poland after 1869, the article focuses on how the administration of Poland is run mostly by
Russians, and how Poles are gradually being replaced by Russians in the highest administrative positions. This indicates
II.1.1.3 Possible Bias
The articles are biased against oppressive rule of the Russians. It is a rather common phenomenon for people to argue against
oppressive rule, especially by a country other than their own. The Danish and Swedish encyclopedias are critical of administrative
policies of Russian rulers; this indicates that they sympathize with whom they view as the victims of oppression ? the Poles. This
particular bias does not come from any underlying enmity between Russia and the two countries; it is rather an obvious response
to the idea of oppressive rule anywhere.
II.1.2 Economic policy
II.1.2.1 Summary of the Articles
Congress Poland does conduct agriculture to a certain level, enough so that it produces surplusses for export. The most important
industries are the mining industry and metal processing industry.
The industry of Congress Poland was of a relatively high level of development before the rebellion of 1830. It experienced a large
setback due to the rebellion, but the industry recovered gradually. The customs border with Russia was lifted in 1851 and since
industry saw even greater levels of development. However, this is mostly due to foreign enterprise since not Russians or Poles, but
Germans dominate industry in Congress Poland. Jews dominate trade. Poles and Ukranians are mostly behind both the Germans
and Jewish in terms of participation in the economy, and they are involved largely in agriculture.
Congress Poland, since its complete incorporation into the Russian empire in 1868, lost its own budget along with its separate
administration.
II.1.2.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Polen
This article provides brief opinion along with statistical data concerning economic policy. It can be seen that the article regards
the rebellion of 1830 a factor that hindered the development of industry in Congress Poland.
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Polen
The article provides no information concerning economic policy.
Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Polen
The article provides ample statistical data concerning agriculture and industry. Also, it provides additional information on which
people were involved in which sector of the economy ? such as the Jews in trade, and the Germans in industry. The article
regards the foreign (German) dominance in Polish economic affairs with disapproval, indicated by negative tone.
II.1.2.3 Possible Bias
There is no bias in these sections, but some of the articles do provide brief opinion and criticism, especially concerning how the
rebellions and crackdowns in Congress Poland affected the economy.
II.1.3 Social and Cultural policy
II.1.3.1 Summary of the Articles
Of social and cultural policy, all three articles are most concerned with the policy of Russification in Congress Poland. During
and after the course of the rebellions in 1830-1831 and 1863, Russian attempts to wipe out Polish national identity and
culture culminated. After the rebellion of 1830-1831, although Russian rulers agreed to keep Polish the official language of
Congress Poland, it was a concession made in response to the requests of the western powers and frequently ignored.
Russification reached its peak after the rebellion of 1863, however. After the Crimean War, Polish requests for reform mounted;
Russian rulers were reminded of the rebellion of 1830. Because the revolutionaries were not well organized, they were quickly
put down by Russian forces. Despite attempted intervention of the western powers regarding the future of Poland, Russia
acted in accord with theories of Russian nationalism; a harsh policy of Russification resulted, legislation was directed against
the church and Polish upper classes. Policies concerning the extermination of Polish nationality were also put into effect;
Russian replaced Polish as the official language of the area, and Polish national colors were replaced by those of Russia.
II.1.3.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Polen
This encyclopedia does not provide information concerning cultural and linguistic policies.
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Polen
This article provides its view on the cultural and linguistic policy of the Russians indirectly by giving a comparison of German,
Russian, and Austrian Poles. According to the article, the Poles of Posen (German Poland) are "best educated" [6],
combining good German and Polish characteristics, unlike their "brethren living under Russian rule" [7].
The article expresses negative opinions of the "education" received by Russian and Austrian Polish, as indicated by the phrase :
"distinguishes them (the Polish of Posen) advantageously" [8]. A negative opinion of the Poles is also
revealed : as wasting their energies in 'useless' party struggle and 'miserable' clergy administration.
This encyclopedia does not examine Russification to a significant degree.
Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Polen
This article overall describes the Russian cultural and linguistic policy regarding Poland as excessive, as it can be inferred from
tone and subtle word choices. The phrase "even deprived of the title 'Kingdom of Poland', ..." [9] hints
at a disapproval of Russian action. The article also fails to maintain a neutral tone throughout and stresses how Russians have
tried to integrate the Polish into Russia by 'forbidding their national colors, ...' [10]. This is a discussion
of Russification, which is not explicitly examined by the writers of the article but rather explained indirectly. The writers of the
article are, although not openly critical of Russification, are probably trying to emphasize it.
II.1.3.3 Possible Bias
Meyer's comparison of German, Russian and Austrian Poles is very biased; it openly describes German Poles as "best educated"
which is very predictable since Meyer's is a German encyclopedia. It is biased toward positively depicting German policies.
Moreover, the article is biased in its discussion of certain traits of the Poles. Poles are described as wasting their energies in 'useless'
party struggle and 'miserable' clergy administration. This bias possibly arises from the tendencies of the Poles which got their
country partitioned in the first place.
Nordisk is biased in their view of Russian cultural policy and implicitly expresses this through a tone of disapproval. Their view of
the Poles is one of sympathy, since they view the Poles as victims of Russification.
II.1.4 Educational Policy
II.1.4.1 Summary of the Articles
The articles mainly list statistical information concerning education in Congress Poland. Poland is described as an
'educational district' [11], or one of the more developed areas regarding education. There are a large
number of educational institutions in Poland, including the University of Warsaw which was founded by Czar Alexander I.
The literacy rate of the Polish population (30.5% in 1897) is considerably higher than that of the rest of Russia (19.8% in 1897),
further reinforcing the naming of Poland as an educational district.
II.1.4.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Polen
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Polen
These encyclopedias do not provide information on the educational policies in Congress Poland.
Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Polen
The article describes the educational system in Congress Poland with a largely neutral viewpoint. The relatively high literacy
rate of Poland compared to Russia is set aside as a factor that distinguishes Poland as an educational district; this possibly
indicates a view of the Poles as more educated than the Russians.
II.1.4.3 Possible Bias
There is no apparent bias in all three of the articles concerning educational policy. The article that actually has information
on the subject mainly provides statistics and data concerning educational institutions in Congress Poland. Although it does
provide that the Poles are better educated than the Russians, this opinion is not based on any kind of bias but rather is an
interpretation of factors such as the literacy rate.
II.2 Austrian Poland in Historic Encyclopedias
II.2.1 Administrative Policy
II.2.1.1 Summary of the Articles
Galicia is an Austrian province under the title "Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Grand Duchy of Cracow and the
Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator" [12]. The Grand Duchy of Cracow had initially been established
as Republic of Cracow in the Vienna Congress. Beginning in about 1830 it became the center of Polish agitation and it was
annexed into the Austrian monarchy after the insurrection of 1846. The administration of Galicia is divided into two districts.
The cities of Lemberg and Cracow both are separate administrative units, and Lemberg also has a stadholder. The magistrates
of Lemberg and Cracow are all subject to the stadholdership in Lemberg.
After the introduction of the February Patent as constitution, the Poles strove for and achieved complete autonomy of the
Galician diet. The Poles dominated the Galician diet, taking all offices as theirs. Although the Austrian government, distrustful
of the Poles, tried to use the Ruthenians to counterbalance the Poles, they failed to do so and the Ruthenians became the
subject of oppression by the Poles. Poles were also very active in the Reichsrat, the Austrian parliament, to acquire privileges
for Galicia.
II.2.1.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Galizien
About the administration of Galicia the article provides no more than objective data.
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Galizien
The Poles are portrayed as actively fighting for autonomy in the region. The article discusses the plan the Poles used to gain
autonomy: by "sending deputees to the Reichsrat" and "outwardly showing loyalty to the Empire" [13],
but in reality using their cooperation to push for government concessions regarding the autonomy of Galicia. The Poles are
seen as strategic but clever at the same time. The article also discusses briefly how the Poles tried to "move aside Germanness"
[14], suppress the Ruthenians and completely dominate. The Poles here are subtly depicted as
exploiting their dominance in number.
Overall, Austrian Poles are described as having been granted a greater degree of national identity and representation in the
Austrian diet as well as assuming most of the high positions in the Galician diet.
Nordisk Familjebok 1908, Article: Galizien
Unlike the former article, this article discusses Austrian policy more thoroughly and response to Polish dominance. The way
the Austrian government tried to balance the Polish dominance by supporting Ruthenians is juxtaposed with how the Poles
were inclined toward "revolution and anti-Austrian thought" [15]. The article also expounds on the
Polish-Ruthenian conflict in Galicia. This encyclopedia divides its discussion of Austrian administrative policy in Galicia more
evenly into categories.
II.2.1.3 Possible Bias
Meyer¡¯s is slightly biased in its discussion of how the Poles achieved dominance over Galicia. It includes a few sentences on
how they suppressed both "Germanness" and the Ruthenians, without discussing the attempts at Germanification that had
been made in Austria since the 1770es. Because Meyer¡¯s is a German encyclopedia, it is probably inclined toward defending
Austria which is technically a German state. Moreover, the article writes as if the Poles gained autonomy by utilizing their
dominance in number, and subtly threatening the Austrian government to make concessions in return for their cooperation
with the government.
Unlike the German encyclopedia, Nordisk takes a more neutral stance in the discussion of Austrian policy, balancing Austrian
attempts at reducing Polish dominance with Polish attempts to increase dominance. The fact that the article extensively
discusses the rift between Poles and Ruthenians suggest that they are again taking the side of the supposed 'victim', or the
Ruthenians, who suffer from suppression by an overwhelming Polish dominance in Galicia.
II.2.2 Economic policy
II.2.2.1 Summary of the Articles
Galicia is rather behind regarding economic development. Agriculture comprises the greatest portion of its economy. Although
the amount of fertile, arable land is very large, agriculture is not conducted effectively and fails to take advantage of such
conditions. A major source of income for the people of Galicia is cattle breeding, and it is relatively well developed. Galicia is
behind the other provinces especially in terms of industry, and has few factories. Certain industries, such as the linen and
distilling industry, are fairly well developed and are an important secondary source of income. Galicia exports mainly raw
material and imports almost all of its manufactured products. Transit trade between Germany, Russia and Austria is of
importance, conducted through its railroads.
The Jews dominate finances also in Galicia; they own the majority of businesses and also play a great role in trade, crafts and
agriculture.
II.2.2.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Galizien
The article mostly provides objective data concerning agriculture and industry in the area. However, it can be inferred through
sentences such as: "Galicia by nature is well bestowed with land suitable for grain cultivation, but agriculture is on a comparatively
low level," [16] that the article views the resources of Galicia as not put to effective use.
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Galizien
This article also expresses a similar view as Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog, as it can be seen in the sentence: "If the
country would be cultivated practically and worked with a sufficient number of men, harvests could be considerably larger."
[17] Other than this the article only gives detailed statistical data.
Nordisk Familjebok 1908, Article: Galizien
This article only provides statistical information concerning economic policy in Galicia.
II.2.2.3 Possible Bias
There is no apparent bias in these sections; they do, however, provide some opinion concerning how agriculture is conducted in the area,
and the amount of economic development in Galicia
II.2.3 Social, Cultural and Educational Policy
Because the social, cultural policy and educational policy of Austrian Poland are closely linked with each other, they will be discussed
in the same section.
II.2.3.1 Summary of the Articles
Mostly Austrian social and cultural policy in Poland was more lenient than that of Prussia or Russia. Consequently, the Poles reserved
a greater sense of nationality and autonomy. However, some Germanification had been in place since the 1770es through the
establishment of the University of Lemberg and German gymnasia. But mostly this was on a small scale, and later the Austrians
gave in to the Poles. "The Polish Club" [18] has played a great role in the Austrian parliamentarian life,
and Polish members of the parliament have been considerably influential. Overall the Poles were a well represented minority in
Austria, and their nationality was much less suppressed.
In 1879 the language of instruction at the University of Lemberg became Polish, at a time when the Polish were already gaining
political dominance in the region. The University of Cracow gradually turned into a center for Polish intelligentsia as well.
There are two universities in Galicia, in Lemberg and Cracow. Various specialized schools, such as technological schools, theological
colleges, an art conservatory and many gymnasia have been established as well, and elementary school is mandatory for all children.
However, education is still considered low in the area, probably due to the fact that compulsory education is not properly enforced
among the population.
II.2.3.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Polen
Despite being an article on Congress Poland, this article also discusses cultural policy in Galicia to a small degree. As it
can be inferred from sentences such as these: "Only in Galicia, under Austrian rule, have the Poles found space for
their nationality and culture," "Culturally Cracow and Lemberg have developed into centers of the life of the entire
Polish nation, and this nation is lively and capable of development," [19] the article views the
lenient Austrian policy with approval, in accord with its criticism of Germanification and Russification.
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Galizien
This article contains no information on cultural, linguistic or educational policy in Austrian Poland.
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Galizien
This encyclopedia does not explicitly discuss cultural or linguistic policy in Galicia. It also leaves out any information concerning
the Germanification that went on in Austrian Poland from the years right after the first Polish Partition. However, the article
provides substantial information about education in Galicia, providing basic statistics concerning the kinds and number of
schools, and number of students.
Nordisk Familjebok 1908, Article: Galizien
Unlike the former two articles, this encyclopedia discusses openly the Germanification policy implemented in Austrian Poland.
However, for the most part the policy is considered weakly enforced and the Poles are portrayed as getting the upper hand in
such matters. Instead of being 'Germanified' the Poles increasingly harbor rebellious and 'anti-Austrian'
[20] sentiment. Although seemingly neutral, this article is actually more critical of the Poles than of the Austrians. The
general tone and diction differ in its discussion of Poles and Austrians. Words with negative connotations are more frequently
used when it describes the Poles' rise to dominance. Moreover, it sympathizes with the Ruthenians, as it is indicated in the tone
of the sentence, "Ruthenians are completely dominated by Poles; not even a professorship for Ruthenian literature exists."
[21]
This article considers education in Galicia of a low level, mostly because the percentage of students receiving compulsory
education is lower than elsewhere. Other than that, the article provides no opinion or criticism. The rest of the paragraph
consists mainly of statistical data about the number of educational institutions, the language of instruction at those institutions
and so on.
II.2.3.3 Possible Bias
Both the German and Swedish encyclopedias are slightly biased in their discussion of cultural and linguistic policies. Meyer's
probably does not discuss Germanification in Austrian Poland because Germany had implemented the same policy more intensively
in Prussian/German Poland. They probably recognize that Germanification is a policy that would be criticized, since it attempts
to defend Austria by not discussing the policy.
The Nordisk Familjebok article on Galicia is biased against the Poles mainly due to existing old national antagonisms. However,
this bias is not apparent in the Nordisk article on Congress Poland, where the article is in general approval of Austrian leniency.
II.3 Prussian/German Poland in Historic Encyclopedias
II.3.1 Administrative Policy
II.3.1.1 Summary of the Articles
Prussian/German Poland is best represented by the Prussian province of Posen. It is divided into two districts: Posen and
Bromberg. It sends 15 delegates to the German Reichstag, and 29 to the Prussian parliament.
II.3.1.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Posen
The only information the article gives regarding the administration of Prussian/German Poland is that Posen is divided into
the two districts of Bromberg and Posen.
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Posen
This encyclopedia only lists factual information as well, such as how many delegates are sent to the German/Prussian government.
Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Posen
Like Anskjaer and Meyer¡¯s, this encyclopedia is only concerned with facts. It does not provide any criticism on the
administration of Posen.
II.3.1.3 Possible Bias
The articles are all very neutral in their discussion of Prussian/German administrative policy. The possibility is that Posen is
seen mostly as a German province with a large population of Poles rather than a Polish state incorporated into Germany.
There are several reasons that may have contributed to such a view: first, Posen has not seen major insurrections or
outbursts of Polish nationalistic sentiment as Congress Poland has; second, it is not as dominated by Poles as Galicia is;
lastly, it is not the only non-German province in Germany.
II.3.2 Economic Policy
II.3.2.1 Summary of the Articles
Posen bears similarity to Galicia in terms of economic development. Agriculture is the main source of income in Posen as well,
and industry is of importance only in a few areas. Rye is cultivated most extensively. Sugar beets are also cultivated to a
considerable degree, and the sugar processing industry is one of the most prominent industries in the region. Trade is also
conducted similar to that of Galicia, with its main exports raw material and grain, and imports manufactured products.
II.3.2.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Posen
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Posen
Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Posen
All three articles consist entirely of objective information. Detailed statistics concerning the number of cattle, amount of farmland
and number of factories, etc are given, without criticism or opinion on the matter.
II.3.2.3 Possible Bias
There is no bias in these sections of the articles, perhaps due to the mediocrity of the economy in the region. It is not far
behind nor well developed. There seem to be no aspects that stand out from other provinces, and the view of the articles
toward economic policy in Posen reflects this fact.
II.3.3 Social and Cultural Policy
II.3.3.1 Summary of the Articles
At the Vienna Congress, the Prussian administration had promised to respect the Polish language and nationality.
[22] However, soon, the Prussian administration, in fear of the large Polish population in
Posen, took measures to reduce the Polish influence in the region. This was attempted mainly by increasing the
German national element there, a process known as Germanification. Oberpr?sident Flottwell in the 1830es implemented
a conscious policy of Germanification by measures such as maintaining German as language of jurisdiction in Posen.
Friedrich Wilhelm IV tried to make concessions to appease the Poles, but nevertheless a rebellion broke out in 1848,
and he was coerced into making even more concessions to the Poles. Many in the German government suggested
breaking off the province, but this was prevented by Bismarck. Bismarck, beginning in 1872, declared war on Polonism
as a renewed attempt at Germanification in Posen. These policies have not been successful and cost the Prussian
state in various aspects such as heightened Polish antagonism.
One specific policy of Germanification implemented by the Prussian/German administration was the establishment of
a colonization commission in Bromberg. Established by a law of April 28 1886, the commission would, with funds
provided by the German government, purchase land from Poles and divide the land to sell or rent to German colonists.
However, this policy turned out to be a complete failure and the commission was dissolved in 1909.
II.3.3.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Polen
This article, although primarily about Congress Poland, also includes information about cultural policy in Posen. It
discusses with more detail the Germanification that took place in Posen, comparing it with Russification in Congress
Poland and cultural policy in Galicia as well. It is critical of Germanification in certain aspects, including the fact that
Germanification caused the Poles to harbor hostile sentiment toward supporters of the German administration.
It implies that Bismarck's 'war on Polonism' was not a very wise move.
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Posen
In this encyclopedia Germanification is discussed, although only briefly. Before the introduction of Germanification,
the article discusses how the Germans broke their promise that had been made at the Vienna Congress to respect
the Polish nationality. By including that statement, the German administration is portrayed as disloyal to its promise
and therefore ungrounded and without justification in its attempt at Germanification. The article also describes
Germanification attempts as largely unsuccessful.
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Posen
This article actually discusses the establishment of a colonization commission. It takes a thoroughly neutral tone about
this policy. Other than that there is no further discussion of Germanification in the area.
Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Posen
This article also explains matters similar to the former two articles. However, in its discussion more factors are brought
into light, and it provides more criticism and analysis of the cultural policy in the area. By describing the large Polish
population in Posen as the reason the German administration attempted Germanification, the article implies that the
German administration was trying to stifle Polish dominance in the area.
II.3.3.3 Possible Bias
Meyer¡¯s tends to be much more neutral and brief in its discussion of cultural policy in Posen, very predictably since it
is a German encyclopedia and will attempt to protect German actions. The other two encyclopedias are not very biased,
but are critical of Germanification. This reflects sympathy for those they view as ¡®victims¡¯ (the Poles in this case) of the
policy.
II.3.4 Educational Policy
II.3.4.1 Summary of the Articles
There were no universities in Posen; there were a few gymnasia and specialized institutions, including one for the blind.
Overall, education was mediocre in the region.
II.3.4.2 Analysis and Interpretation
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Posen
This article does not mention educational policy in the area.
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Posen
Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Posen
Both articles provide basic statistics on educational institutions, but does not provide further information on the matter.
II.3.4.3 Possible Bias
There is no significant bias in the articles concerning educational policy. The articles all do seem to presume that Posen is
a 'German province' rather than a 'Polish province integrated into the German empire'. Therefore they write about it as they
would all other provinces of the German empire. No special conditions or circumstances apply to Posen, not even the
considerable Polish majority.
III. Conclusion
Overall, the encyclopedic articles vary in the degrees to which they are biased or provide opinion, and how they regard the
administrative, economic, and cultural policy in Poland after the partitions. The articles are without bias in certain sections
such as the sections concerned with economic policy, because they only provide statistical data with no accompanying criticism.
In the other sections that are concerned to a degree with politics, the articles are all biased toward either the Poles or the
Russian/German/Austrian administration.
The German articles tend to be more biased than the other articles because Germany participated in the partitions and was
responsible for the administration of Posen. The Danish and Swedish articles are more balanced.
It can be seen that even encyclopedic articles, which are supposed to be neutral in their discussions of any subject, are biased
in different ways and to different degrees especially when it comes to political matters. Poland under the three foreign powers
seems to evoke either sympathy toward the Poles as victims of foreign rule, or toward the administration as having to put up
with Polish unrest.
Notes
(1) The Partition of Poland, from WHKMLA
(2) The Partition of Poland, from WHKMLA
(3) Article: Polen, from
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863
(4) Article: Polen, from
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863
(5) Article: Polen,
Nordisk Familjebok 1915
(6) Article: Polen,
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892
(7) Article: Polen,
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892
(8) Article: Polen,
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892
(9) Article: Polen,
Nordisk Familjebok 1915
(10) Article: Polen,
Nordisk Familjebok 1915
(11) Article: Polen,
Nordisk Familjebok 1915
(12) Article: Galizien,
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892
(13) Article: Galizien,
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892
(14) Article: Galizien,
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892
(15) Article: Galizien,
Nordisk Fasmiljebok 1908
(16) Article: Galizien,
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863
(17) Article: Galizien,
Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892
(18) Article: Polen,
Nordisk Familjebok 1915
(19) Article: Polen,
Nordisk Familjebok 1915
(20) Article: Galizien,
Nordisk Fasmiljebok 1908
(21) Article: Galizien,
Nordisk Fasmiljebok 1908
(22) Article: Posen,
Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863
Bibliography
Note : websites quoted below were visited in May ? June 2009..
Primary Sources
1. Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Polen;
excerpts in English translation posted on WHKMLA
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/cgrpolenc19.html
2. Article : Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Polen (excerpts);
excerpts in English translation posted on WHKMLA
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/cgrpolenc19.html
3. Article : Nordisk Familjebok 1915, Article: Polen;
excerpts in English translation posted on WHKMLA
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/cgrpolenc19.html
4. Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Galizien,
excerpts in English translation posted on WHKMLA,
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/galenc19.html
5. Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Galizien;
excerpts in English translation posted on WHKMLA,
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/galenc19.html
6. Nordisk Fasmiljebok 1908, Article: Galizien;
excerpts in English translation posted on WHKMLA,
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/galenc19.html
7. Anskjaer, Geografisk-Statistisk Haandbog 1858-1863, Article: Posen;
excerpts in English translation posted on WHKMLA,
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/posenenc19.html
8. Meyer's Konversationslexikon 1885-1892, Article: Posen;
excerpts in English translation posted on WHKMLA,
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/posenenc19.html
9. Nordisk Familjebok 1904-1926, Article: Posen (1915);
excerpts in English translation posted on WHKMLA,
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/posenenc19.html
Secondary Sources
10. Article: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, from:
Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth
11. Article: Liberum Veto, from:
Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberum_Veto
12. Article: Polish Partitions, from:
Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Partitions
13. Article: Vienna Congress, from:
Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Congress
14. Article: The Partition of Poland, from:
WHKMLA
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/eceurope/partitions.html
15. Article: Grand Duchy of Posen 1815 ? 1848, from:
WHKMLA
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